Despite widespread use by patients with diabetes and anecdotal reports in the past regarding its efficacy, until recently, data in humans concerning chromium’s effects on insulin action in vivo or on cellular aspects of insulin action were scarce. Consequently, significant controversy still exists regarding the effect of chromium supplementation on parameters assessing human health. Furthermore, elucidating the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which chromium supplements affect carbohydrate metabolism in vivo is necessary before specific recommendations can be made regarding its routine use in the management of diabetes. This review focuses on providing current information about this trace mineral’s specific mechanisms of action and clinical trials in patients with diabetes.Chromium, one of the most common elements in the earth’s crust and seawater, exists in our environment in several oxidation states, principally as metallic (Cr0), trivalent (+3), and hexavalent (+6) chromium. The latter is largely synthesized by the oxidation of the more common and naturally occurring trivalent chromium and is highly toxic. Trivalent chromium, found in most foods and nutrient supplements, is an essential nutrient with very low toxicity.The interest in chromium as a nutritional enhancement to glucose metabolism can be traced back to the 1950s, when it was suggested that brewer’s yeast contained a glucose tolerance factor (GTF) that prevented diabetes in experimental animals (1). This factor was eventually suggested to be a biologically active form of trivalent chromium that could substantially lower plasma glucose levels in diabetic mice (2). Interest regarding chromium administration in patients with diabetes was kindled by the observation in the 1970s that it truly was an essential nutrient required for normal carbohydrate metabolism. A patient receiving total parenteral nutrition (TPN) developed severe signs of diabetes, including weight loss and hyperglycemia that was refractory to increasing insulin dosing (3). Based on previous animal studies and preliminary human studies, the patient was given supplemental chromium. In the following 2 weeks, signs and symptoms of diabetes were ameliorated, with markedly improved glycemic status and greatly reduced insulin requirements (exogenous insulin requirements decreased from 45 units/day to none). Other studies (4,5) of the beneficial effects of chromium in patients receiving TPN have also been documented in the scientific literature. Chromium is now routinely added to TPN solutions (5).The results of these studies strongly implicated chromium as a critical cofactor in the action of insulin (6,7). Whereas chromium replacement in deficiency states is well established, the role of chromium supplementation to enhance glucose metabolism in subjects is controversial and serves as the basis for this review.Trivalent chromium is found in a wide range of foods, including egg yolks, whole-grain products, high-bran breakfast cereals, coffee, nuts, green beans, broccoli, meat, brewer’s yeast, and some brands of wine and beer (8,9). Chromium is also present in many multivitamin/mineral supplements, and there are also specific chromium picolinate (CrP) supplements that contain 200–600 μg chromium per tablet (10). The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has established the Recommended Daily Allowances for chromium as 50–200 μg/day for adult men and women (11), which is also the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake (ESADDI) for chromium for children aged 7 years to adulthood (7,12). However, it appears that Americans normally ingest ∼50–60% of the minimum suggested daily intake of 50 μg (7). Results from one study (10) indicated that daily chromium intakes for men and women in the U.S. were 33 and 25 μg, respectively. Therefore, normal dietary intake of chromium for adults may be suboptimal.At dietary intakes >50 μg/day, chromium absorption is ∼0.4%, but the trivalent formulation also significantly influences bioavailability. At a dose of 1,000 μg/day, absorption of chromium from chromium chloride (CrCl3) is ∼0.4%, whereas that from CrP may be as high as 2.8% (7,13,14). Once absorbed, chromium is distributed widely in the body, with the highest levels being found in the kidney, liver, spleen, and bone (14). Next SectionBIOLOGIC ACTIONS OF CHROMIUMHow chromium serves as a cofactor for insulin action is not fully understood. From several in vivo and in vitro studies (15), it was initially thought that chromium potentiated the actions of insulin as part of an organic complex, GTF. More recent studies (15) have suggested that chromium may function as part of the oligopeptide low–molecular weight (MW) chromium (LMWCr)-binding substance (MW ∼1,500 Da), which is composed of glycine, cysteine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid. The interaction of chromium with LMWCr and the manner in which this complex influences insulin metabolism is considered in greater detail below.BiochemistryVery little chromium (<2%) in the form of inorganic compounds is absorbed but may be higher with certain organic formulations (14). Once absorbed, chromium is distributed to various tissues of the body, but appears to be most concentrated in the kidney, muscle, and liver (16). The principal carrier protein for chromium is transferrin, which also plays a critical role in the movement of chromium from blood to LMWCr. It has been suggested that migration of transferrin receptors to the plasma membranes of insulin-insensitive cells after insulin stimulation is the initial step in this process. Transferrin containing the plasma-bound chromium is postulated to bind to the transferrin receptors and is internalized by endocytosis (Figs. 1 and 2). The pH of the internalized vesicle is reduced by ATP-driven proton pumps, chromium is released from transferrin, and the resulting free chromium is postulated to be sequestered by LMWCr (15,17). With this step, chromium is transferred from transferrin to LMWCr, which normally exists in insulin-dependent cells in the apo, or inactive, form. Binding with chromium ions converts inactive LMWCr to its holo, or active, form. It is proposed that LMWCr then participates as part of an insulin signal amplification system (Fig. 1) as it binds to insulin-activated insulin receptors and results in stimulating its tyrosine kinase activity. The result of this process is the activation of insulin receptor kinase and potentiation of the actions of insulin (15,18,19). Importantly, LMWCr without bound chromium or in the presence of other metal ions is ineffective in activating insulin-dependent kinase activity and thus enhancing the actions of insulin (19).
Chromium has also been demonstrated to inhibit phosphotyrosine phosphatase, the enzyme that cleaves phosphate from the insulin receptor, leading to decreases in insulin sensitivity. Activation of insulin receptor kinase and inhibition of insulin receptor phosphatase would lead to increased phosphorylation of the insulin receptor and increased insulin sensitivity (20). The balance between kinase and phosphatase activity may facilitate the role of insulin in rapidly moving glucose into cells. In addition, it has been suggested (7) that chromium enhances insulin binding, insulin receptor number, insulin internalization, and β-cell sensitivity.
The controversy surrounding chromium supplementation is due in part to substantial variability in the results of studies that have evaluated the effects of chromium in patients with or without diabetes. Results from some trials (21–26) have indicated that chromium supplementation increases muscle gain and fat loss associated with exercise and improves glucose metabolism and the serum lipid profile in patients with or without diabetes. In contrast, those from other studies (27–32) have indicated little or no benefit of chromium on any of these variables.
Recent meta-analyses (33,34) of results from studies that evaluated the effects of chromium supplementation have suggested limited benefit in individuals with or without diabetes. The major conclusions from these analyses were that chromium has a very small effect versus placebo in reducing body weight and that the clinical relevance of this small decrease is debatable and should be interpreted with caution. It was also concluded that chromium has no effect on glucose metabolism or insulin concentrations in individuals without diabetes and that data for patients with diabetes are currently inconclusive. It is important to note that these conclusions are based largely on data from patients without diabetes and failed to include key positive results for chromium supplementation in diabetic patients and subjects with gestational diabetes or the metabolic syndrome.
There is no clinically defined state of chromium deficiency, but diabetes has been shown (32) to develop because of low chromium levels in experimental animals and in humans sustained by prolonged TPN. These results suggest that there may be a more general relationship between chromium levels and glucose and/or lipid metabolism. It has also been suggested (35–37) that low chromium concentrations and the associated impairments in insulin, glucose, and lipid metabolism may also result in increased cardiovascular risk. In a cross-sectional analysis (38), lower toenail chromium levels have also been associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Adequate dietary chromium intake may be especially problematic in the elderly (39,40). Consumption of refined foods, including simple sugars, exacerbates the problem of insufficient dietary chromium because these foods are not only low in dietary chromium but also increase its loss from the body (41). Chromium losses are also increased during pregnancy and as a result of strenuous exercise, infection, physical trauma, and other forms of stress (40). Reduced chromium levels are reported in the elderly and in patien
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