All these processes may be considered simultaneously, in view of Figure 3.8, inwhich negative (typical of biological particles and molecules) particles approachone another in an electrolyte solution. Attracting forces such as London and van derWaals forces are opposed by the interaction of like charges distributed over each particle.If the charge on the particle can be reduced, then a closer approach is possible,allowing the formation of London, van der Waals, and even hydrogen bonds. Theformation of such bonds can be understood in terms of the total potential energy diagram(Figure 3.9), in which the electrostatic repulsion curve ψE(r) and the attractivepotential curve ψL(r) sum to values less than zero. Particles attracted to each other atthe “secondary minimum” (in Figure 3.9) are still approximately 4/κ apart, where κis the Debye-Hückel constant
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