In addition to expenditure decentralization, four of the remaining control variables are
significant. One of these is the population variable, which is consistently negative. This suggests that an increase in population leads to less government indebtedness, presumably because scale economies in the production of public goods reduce fiscal pressures in larger countries. The openness variable is consistently positive, which suggests that open economies have to cope with more fiscal instability than relatively closed ones. The estimated coefficient on the interest rate variable is consistently negative, which indicates that governments borrow less when the costs of borrowing increase. Finally, the coefficient on the ideology variable is consistently positive and significant in two models (one of the two is the preferred model), which indicates that left-wing governments used to borrow more during the time-frame of our analysis.
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