Mechanisms[edit]
Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney
The kidney's ability to perform many of its functions depends on the three fundamental functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, whose sum is renal excretion. That is:
Urinary excretion rate = Filtration rate – Reabsorption rate + Secretion rate[16]
Filtration[edit]
Main article: Renal ultrafiltration
The blood is filtered by nephrons, the functional units of the kidney. Each nephron begins in a renal corpuscle, which is composed of a glomerulus enclosed in a Bowman's capsule. Cells, proteins, and other large molecules are filtered out of the glomerulus by a process of ultrafiltration, leaving an ultrafiltrate that resembles plasma (except that the ultrafiltrate has negligible plasma proteins) to enter Bowman's space. Filtration is driven by Starling forces.
The ultrafiltrate is passed through, in turn, the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and a series of collecting ducts to form urine.
Reabsorption[edit]
Tubular reabsorption is the process by which solutes and water are removed from the tubular fluid and transported into the blood. It is called reabsorption (and not absorption) because these substances have already been absorbed once (particularly in the intestines).
Reabsorption is a two-step process beginning with the active or passive extraction of substances from the tubule fluid into the renal interstitium (the connective tissue that surrounds the nephrons), and then the transport of these substances from the interstitium into the bloodstream. These transport processes are driven by Starling forces, diffusion, and active transport.
Indirect reabsorption[edit]
In some cases, reabsorption is indirect. For example, bicarbonate (HCO3-) does not have a transporter, so its reabsorption involves a series of reactions in the tubule lumen and tubular epithelium. It begins with the active secretion of a hydrogen ion (H+) into the tubule fluid via a Na/H exchanger:
In the lumen
The H+ combines with HCO3- to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Luminal carbonic anhydrase enzymatically converts H2CO3 into H2O and CO2
CO2 freely diffuses into the cell
In the epithelial cell
Cytoplasmic carbonic anhydrase converts the CO2 and H2O (which is abundant in the cell) into H2CO3
H2CO3 readily dissociates into H+ and HCO3-
HCO3- is facilitated out of the cell's basolateral membrane
Hormones[edit]
Some key regulatory hormones for reabsorption include:
aldosterone, which stimulates active sodium reabsorption (and water as a result)
antidiuretic hormone, which stimulates passive water reabsorption
Both hormones exert their effects principally on the collecting ducts.
Secretion[edit]
Main article: Clearance (medicine)
Tubular secretion is the transfer of materials from peritubular capillaries to renal tubular lumen. Tubular secretion is caused mainly by active transport.
Usually only a few substances are secreted. These substances are present in great excess, or are natural poisons.
Many drugs are eliminated by tubular secretion. Further reading: Table of medication secreted in kidney
Measurement of renal function[edit]
Main article: Renal function
A simple means of estimating renal function is to measure pH, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and basic electrolytes (including sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate). As the kidney is the most important organ in controlling these values, any derangement in these values could suggest renal impairment.
There are several more formal tests and ratios involved in estimating renal function:
Measurement Calculation Details
renal plasma flow RPF = frac{ ext{effective RPF}}{ ext{extraction ratio}} [17] Volume of blood plasma delivered to the kidney per unit time. PAH clearance is a renal analysis method used to provide an estimate. Approximately 625 ml/min.
renal blood flow RBF = frac{RPF}{1 - HCT} (HCT is hematocrit) Volume of blood delivered to the kidney per unit time. In humans, the kidneys together receive roughly 20% of cardiac output, amounting to 1 L/min in a 70-kg adult male.
glomerular filtration rate GFR = frac{U_{[ ext{creatinine}]} imes dot{V}}{P_{[ ext{creatinine}]}} (estimation using creatinine clearance) Volume of fluid filtered from the renal glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule per unit time. Estimated using inulin. Usually a creatinine clearance test is performed but other markers, such as the plant polysaccharide inulin or radiolabelled EDTA, may be used as well.
filtration fraction FF = frac{GFR}{RPF} [18] Measures portion of renal plasma that is filtered.
anion gap AG = [Na+] − ([Cl−] + [HCO3−]) Cations minus anions. Excludes K+ (usually), Ca2+, H2PO4−. Aids in the differential diagnosis of metabolic acidosis
Clearance (other than water) C = frac{U imes dot{V}}{P} where U = concentration, V =urine volume / time, U*V = urinary excretion, and P = plasma concentration [19] Rate of removal
free water clearance C = dot{V} - C_{osm} or dot{V} - frac{U_{osm}}{P_{osm}}dot{V} =C_{H_2O}[20] The volume of blood plasma that is cleared of solute-free water per unit time.
Net acid excretion NEA = dot{V} ( U_{NH_4} + U_{TA} - U_{HCO_3} ) Net amount of acid excreted in the urine per unit time
[hide] v t e
Urinary system physiology: renal physiology and acid-base physiology
Filtration
Renal blood flow Ultrafiltration Countercurrent exchange Filtration fraction
Hormones affecting
filtration
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Aldosterone Atrial natriuretic peptide
Secretion /
clearance
Pharmacokinetics Clearance of medications Urine flow rate
Reabsorption
Solvent drag Na+ Cl− urea glucose oligopeptides protein
Endocrine
Renin Erythropoietin (EPO) Calcitriol (Active vitamin D) Prostaglandins
Assessing
renal function/
measures of dialysis
Glomerular filtration rate Creatinine clearance Renal clearance ratio Urea reduction ratio Kt/V Standardized Kt/V Hemodialysis product PAH clearance (Effective renal plasma flow Extraction ratio)
Acid-base
physiology
Fluid balance Darrow Yannet diagram
Body water: Intracellular fluid/Cytosol
Extracellular fluid (Interstitial fluid Plasma Transcellular fluid)
Base excess Davenport diagram Anion gap Arterial blood gas Winter's formula
Buffering/
compensation
Bicarbonate buffering system Respiratory compensation Renal compensation
Other
Fractional sodium excretion BUN-to-creatinine ratio Tubuloglomerular feedback Natriuresis Urine
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