2. Probiotics in fish culture Fish is one of the richest sources of animal protein and is the fastest food producing sector in the world. Worldwide, people obtain about 25% of their animal protein from fish and shellfish and consumer's demand for fish continues to climb [10]. Over the years, aquaculture sector has undergone a sea change in order to meet the increasing demand. The production is maximized through inten- sification with addition of commercial diets, growth promoters, antibiotics, and several other additives. Application of these measures leads to high production beyond any doubt, but the most worrisome factor is that the routine use of these products causes severe complications and even a stage has come where its sustainability is in stake [11].In aquaculture practices, probiotics are used for a quite long time but in last few years probiotics became an integral part of the culture practices for improving growth and disease resistance. This strategy offers innumerable advantages to overcome the limita- tions and side effects of antibiotics and other drugs and also leads to high production through enhanced growth and disease prevention [12e15]. In aquaculture, the range of probiotics evaluated for use is considerably wider than in terrestrial agriculture. Several pro- biotics either as monospecies or multispecies supplements are commercially available for aquaculture practices [16e20]. Apart from the nutritional and other health benefits [21e25], certain probiotics as water additives can also play a significant role in decomposition of organic matter, reduction of nitrogen and phos- phorus level as well as control of ammonia, nitrite, and hydrogen sulfide [26].Numerous microbes have been identified as probiotics for aquaculture practices, many of which differ markedly in their mode of action. There are, however, some common mechanisms of action that have been reported for the majority of probiotic strains. Probiotics help in feed conversion efficiency and live weight gain [27,28] and confer protection against pathogens by competitive exclusion for adhesion sites [29,30], production of organic acids (formic acid, acetic acid, lactic acid), hydrogen peroxide and several other compounds such as antibiotics, bacteriocins, siderophores, lysozyme [31e35] and also modulate physiological and immuno- logical responses in fish [36,37].3. Probiotics and fish immunityAmong the numerous beneficial effects of probiotics, modula- tion of immune system is one of the most commonly purported benefits of the probiotics. The role of probiotics in modulating the immune system has been extensively investigated and reviewed in humans and animals [38e41]. Most of the earlier studies in fish, dealt with growth promoting and disease protective ability of probiotics. However, in recent times much attention has been hitherto towards the immunmodulating effects of probiotics in piscine system. A lot of immunological studies have been performed in several fish using different probiotics and their potency to stimulate the teleost immunity both under in vivo and in vitro conditions is noteworthy [42e79]. Perusal of available literatures indicates that several probiotics either individually or in combina- tion can enhance both systemic as well as local immunity in fish. The review is therefore, aiming to highlight the immunomodulatory activity of probiotics and also to evaluate the factors that regulate for the optimum induction of immune responses in piscine system.4. Effect of probiotics on systemic immunityStudies on human and animal models provide a baseline understanding of the degree and type of immune responsesinduced by different probiotics [80]. Unlike other animals, pro- biotics also modulate various immunohaematological parameters in teleosts and is presented in Table 1. Probiotics interact with the immune cells such as mononuclear phagocytic cells (monocytes, macrophages) and polymorphonuclear leucocytes (neutrophils) and NK cells to enhance innate immune responses. Like higher vertebrates, certain probiotics can enhance the number of eryth- rocytes, granulocytes, macrophages and lymphocytes in different fish [53,57]. Similarly, probiotics, in both in vitro and in vivo conditions, actively stimulate the proliferation of B lymphocytes in fish. Elevation of immunoglobulin level by probiotics supplemen- tation is reported in many animals including fish [27,58,63]. Furthermore, Song et al. [75] recorded high immunoglobulin level in skin mucusa of Miichthys miiuy by Clostridium butyricum. Different Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) group of probiotics either in viable or non-viable form can elevate immunoglobulin level in fish [64] and even one week supplementation of probiotioc like Lacto-bacillus rhamnosus @2.8 108 CFU/g feed was found to significantlyincrease the immunoglobulin level in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) [60]. However, Balczar et al. [44] only found rise in immunoglobulin level in Salmo trutta but not at significant level by feeding LAB groups of probiotics namely Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis, Lactobacillus sakei and Leuconostoc mesenteroides supple-mented @106 CFU/g feed for a period of 2 weeks.
4.1. Phagocytic activity
Phagocytic activity is responsible for early activation of the inflammatory response before antibody production and plays an important role in antibacterial defenses. Probiotics can effectively trigger the pahgocytic cells in host and enhancement of phago- cytic activity by LAB group of probiotics such as L. rhamnosus, L. lactis and Lactobacillus acidophilus has already been observed in several animals [81]. These probiotics are often used in aqua- culture practices and supplementation of these probiotics either in viable or inactivated form is found to stimulate phagocytic activity in several fish species [47,48,54,63,67]. In tilapia (Oreo- chromis niloticus) a 2 weeks feeding of L. rhamnosus significantly stimulated the phagocytic activity [68]. Likewise, oral adminis- tration of C. butyricum bacteria to O. mykiss has also been reported to enhance the phagocytic activity of O. mykiss [69]. However, probiotic like L. lactis failed to enhance the phagocytic activity of head kidney macrophages of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) [77].
4.2. Respiratory burst activity
Respiratory burst activity is an important innate defense mechanism of fish. The findings of respiratory burst activity following probiotics treatment in fish are often contradictory. While some studies indicate probiotics do not have significant impact on this non-specific defense mechanism of fish [52,58,73], several in vitro and in vivo studies showed significant increase in respiratory burst activity by various probiotics in many aquatic animals including fish. Probiotics like Bacillus subtilis and certain members of LAB group can stimulate respiratory burst activity in
fish [60,70,71,79]. Nevertheless 5 107 CFU/ml heat inactivated
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis and B. subtilis under in vitro condition also found to enhance this activity of head kidney leu- cocytes of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) [71].
4.3. Lysozyme
Lysozyme, one of the important bactericidal enzymes of innate immunity is an indispensable tool of fish to fight against
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