More than 50 studies (describing in total more than 3,000 patients) have been published in peer-reviewed medical liter- ature utilizing molecular typing methods in the study of the epidemiology of nosocomial infections with ESBL-producing organisms (295). More than 75% of the studies have addressed ESBL-producing infections with Klebsiella pneumoniae. The predilection of ESBLs for Klebsiella pneumoniae has never been clearly explained. It should be noted that the parent enzyme of TEM-type ESBLs, TEM-1, is widespread in many other species. More relevant, given the frequent finding of SHV-type ESBLs in Klebsiella pneumoniae, may be the in- creased frequency of SHV-1 in Klebsiella pneumoniae versus other species. Almost all non-ESBL-producing Klebsiella pneu- moniae isolates have chromosomally mediated SHV-1 þ-lacta- mases (21). In contrast, fewer than 10% of ampicillin-resistant Escherichia coli isolates harbor SHV-1 (219).Many ESBL genes are on large plasmids; even prior to the advent of ESBLs, large multiresistance plasmids were more common in klebsiellae than Escherichia coli (219). Of impor- tance may be the well-noted adaptation of klebsiellae to the hospital environment. Klebsiellae survive longer than other enteric bacteria on hands and environmental surfaces, facili- tating cross-infection within hospitals (75).In 100% of the more than 50 studies previously mentioned, at least two patients were colonized or infected with genotyp- ically similar strains, implying patient-to-patient transmission of the strain. A number of outbreaks have been decribed with dissemination of a single clone of genotypically identical or- ganism (131, 132, 143, 273). Clones have been found to persistfor more than 3 years (57).However, in many hospitals a more complex molecular ep- idemiologic picture has emerged (20). Recent reports have described the clonal dissemination of at least five different ESBL-producing Klebsiella strains in the same unit at the same time (128). Additionally, members of a single epidemic strain may carry different plasmids (carrying different ESBL genes) (128). Furthermore, genotypically nonrelated strains may pro- duce the same ESBL due to plasmid transfer from species to species (38, 128). Finally, although the same ESBL may be prevalent in a particular unit of a hospital, they may be medi- ated by different plasmids (53). This may imply independent evolution via the effects of antibiotic pressure, or plasmid transfer from organism to organism.
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