Under intensive forestry management, the most vulnerable
communities are the unique and biologically rich ones
associated with forests older than harvest age (over 20 to
100 years depending on forest type and product; Amaranthus
et al. 1994, Franklin et al. 1981, Marcot 1997); hardwoods
(because repeated cutting of conifers on short rotation cycles
discourages the establishment of these late-successional species);
and riparian zones, wetlands, and streams (Gregory et
al. 1987, Kuenzler 1989,Thomas 1979).
Changes in Forest Structure
At the stand level, there are three important differences
between natural and harvested forest stands: age, size of
gap openings, and abundance and distribution of large dead
woody debris (Morrison and Swanson 1990, Sharitz et al.
1992, Spies and Franklin 1991). Each of these factors plays a
key role in functioning and structure of forest ecosystems.
Clearcutting results in even-aged regeneration of trees,
while natural disturbances such as fire and wind can result
in uneven-aged regeneration. For example, fire creates different
effects on individual trees in a stand depending on
temperature, time of day, and position in the burn, and it
also influences establishment of seedlings. These variables
leave trees of various ages, some partially functioning and
others dead, which contribute to the regeneration of the
forest and provide microhabitat for many species.
Timber harvesting, especially clearcutting, leaves large
swaths of open area. In contrast, natural disturbances create
gaps of mixed sizes depending on cause. These can range
from a single tree-fall gap to large blowdowns caused by hurricanes
and tornadoes. Tornadoes in boreal forests, for example,
may create clearings measuring over 100,000 hectares.
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