General Aspects 11.1. Defining Acidity 11.1.1. Acids and Bases 11.1.2. dịch - General Aspects 11.1. Defining Acidity 11.1.1. Acids and Bases 11.1.2. Việt làm thế nào để nói

General Aspects 11.1. Defining Acid

General Aspects 1
1.1. Defining Acidity 1
1.1.1. Acids and Bases 1
1.1.2. The pH Scale 3
1.1.3. Acidity Functions 4
1.2. Definition of Superacids 6
1.2.1. Range of Acidities 7
1.3. Types of Superacids 9
1.3.1. Primary Superacids 10
1.3.2. Binary Superacids 10
1.3.3. Ternary Superacids 10
1.3.4. Solid Superacids 10
1.4. Experimental Techniques for Acidity Measurements
(Protic Acids) 11
1.4.1. Spectrophotometric Method 11
1.4.2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Methods 13
1.4.2.1. Chemical Shift Measurements 15
1.4.2.2. Exchange Rate Measurements Based
on Line-Shape Analysis (DNMR:
Dynamic Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) 18
1.4.3. Electrochemical Methods 20
1.4.4. Chemical Kinetics 20
1.4.5. Heats of Protonation of Weak Bases 22
1.4.6. Theoretical Calculations and Superacidity
in the Gas Phase 22
1.4.7. Estimating the Strength of Lewis Acids 23
1.4.8. Experimental Techniques Applied to Solid Acids 2
Superacid Systems 35
2.1. Primary Superacids 35
2.1.1. Brønsted Superacids 35
2.1.1.1 Perchloric Acid 35
2.1.1.2. Chlorosulfuric Acid 36
2.1.1.3. Fluorosulfuric Acid 37
2.1.1.4. Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids 38
2.1.1.5. Hydrogen Fluoride 40
2.1.1.6. Carborane Superacids H(CB11HR5X6) 41
2.1.2. Lewis Superacids 42
2.1.2.1. Antimony Pentafluoride 42
2.1.2.2. Arsenic Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.3. Phosphorus Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.4. Tantalum and Niobium Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.5. Boron Trifluoride 44
2.1.2.6. Tris(pentafluorophenyl) Borane 45
2.1.2.7. Boron Tris(trifluoromethanesulfonate) 46
2.1.2.8. Aprotic Organic Superacids
(Vol’pin’s Systems) 46
2.2. Binary Superacids 47
2.2.1. Binary Brønsted Superacids 47
2.2.1.1. Hydrogen Fluoride–Fluorosulfuric Acid 47
2.2.1.2. Hydrogen Fluoride–Trifluoromethanesulfonic
Acid 47
2.2.1.3. Tetra(Hydrogen Sulfato)Boric Acid–Sulfuric
Acid 47
2.2.2. Conjugate Brønsted–Lewis Superacids 47
2.2.2.1. Oleums–Polysulfuric Acids 47
2.2.2.2. Fluorosulfuric Acid–Antimony Pentafluoride
(‘‘Magic Acid’’) 49
2.2.2.3. Fluorosulfuric Acid–Sulfur Trioxide 53
2.2.2.4. HSO3F–MFn(SO3F)5n; n ¼ 3, 4,
M ¼ Nb, Ta 53
2.2.2.5. Fluorosulfuric Acid–Arsenic Pentafluoride 54
2.2.2.6. Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acid–Based Systems 54
2.2.2.7. Hydrogen Fluoride–Antimony Pentafluoride
(Fluoroantimonic Acid) 56
2.2.2.8. Hydrogen Fluoride– Phosphorus Pentafluoride 59
2.2.2.9. Hydrogen Fluoride–Tantalum Pentafluoride 60
3. Carbocations in Superacid Systems 83
3.1. Introduction 83
3.1.1. Development of the Carbocation Concept: Early
Kinetic and Stereochemical Studies 83
3.1.2. Observation of Stable, Long-Lived Carbocations 84
3.1.3. General Concept of Carbocations 85
3.2. Methods of Generating Carbocations in Superacids Systems 87
3.3. Methods and Techniques in the Study of Carbocations 88
3.3.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra in Solution 88
3.3.2. 13C NMR Chemical Shift Additivity 89
3.3.3. Isotopic Perturbation Technique 90
3.3.4. Solid-State 13C NMR 90
3.3.5. X-ray Diffraction 91
CONTENTS ix
3.3.6. Tool of Increasing Electron Demand 91
3.3.7. Core Electron Spectroscopy 91
3.3.8. Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 92
3.3.9. Electronic Spectroscopy 92
3.3.10. Low-Temperature Solution Calorimetric Studies 92
3.3.11. Quantum Mechanical Calculations 93
3.4. Trivalent Carbocations 93
3.4.1. Alkyl Cations 93
3.4.1.1. Early Unsuccessful Attempts 93
3.4.1.2. Preparation from Alkyl Fluorides
in Antimony Pentafluoride Solution
and Spectroscopic Studies 94
3.4.1.3. Preparation from Other Precursors 108
3.4.1.4. Observation in Different Superacids 112
3.4.2. Cycloalkyl Cations 112
3.4.3. Bridgehead Cations 116
3.4.4. Cyclopropylmethyl Cations 120
3.4.5. Alkenyl Cations 123
3.4.6. Alkadienyl and Polyenylic Cations 125
3.4.7. Arenium Ions 126
3.4.8. Ethylenearenium Ions 132
3.4.9. Propargyl and Allenylmethyl Cations
(Mesomeric Vinyl Cations) 134
3.4.10. The Phenyl Cation 139
3.4.11. Arylmethyl and Alkylarylmethyl Cations 140
3.4.12. Carbodications and Polycations 147
3.4.13. Aromatic Stabilized Cations and Dications 157
3.4.14. Polycyclic Arene Dications 162
3.4.15. Fullerene Cations 164
3.4.16. Heteroatom-Stabilized Cations 167
3.4.16.1. Halogen as Heteroatom 167
3.4.16.2. Oxygen as Heteroatom 172
3.4.16.3. Sulfur as Heteroatom 192
3.4.16.4. Nitrogen as Heteroatom 195
3.4.17. Carbocations Complexed to Metal Atoms 204
3.5. Equilibrating (Degenerate) and Higher (Five or Six)
Coordinate (Nonclassical) Carbocations 206
3.5.1. Alkonium Ions (Protonated Alkanes CnH2nþ3þ) 206
3.5.1.1. The Methonium Ion (CH5þ) 207
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General Aspects 1
1.1. Defining Acidity 1
1.1.1. Acids and Bases 1
1.1.2. The pH Scale 3
1.1.3. Acidity Functions 4
1.2. Definition of Superacids 6
1.2.1. Range of Acidities 7
1.3. Types of Superacids 9
1.3.1. Primary Superacids 10
1.3.2. Binary Superacids 10
1.3.3. Ternary Superacids 10
1.3.4. Solid Superacids 10
1.4. Experimental Techniques for Acidity Measurements
(Protic Acids) 11
1.4.1. Spectrophotometric Method 11
1.4.2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Methods 13
1.4.2.1. Chemical Shift Measurements 15
1.4.2.2. Exchange Rate Measurements Based
on Line-Shape Analysis (DNMR:
Dynamic Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) 18
1.4.3. Electrochemical Methods 20
1.4.4. Chemical Kinetics 20
1.4.5. Heats of Protonation of Weak Bases 22
1.4.6. Theoretical Calculations and Superacidity
in the Gas Phase 22
1.4.7. Estimating the Strength of Lewis Acids 23
1.4.8. Experimental Techniques Applied to Solid Acids 2
Superacid Systems 35
2.1. Primary Superacids 35
2.1.1. Brønsted Superacids 35
2.1.1.1 Perchloric Acid 35
2.1.1.2. Chlorosulfuric Acid 36
2.1.1.3. Fluorosulfuric Acid 37
2.1.1.4. Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids 38
2.1.1.5. Hydrogen Fluoride 40
2.1.1.6. Carborane Superacids H(CB11HR5X6) 41
2.1.2. Lewis Superacids 42
2.1.2.1. Antimony Pentafluoride 42
2.1.2.2. Arsenic Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.3. Phosphorus Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.4. Tantalum and Niobium Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.5. Boron Trifluoride 44
2.1.2.6. Tris(pentafluorophenyl) Borane 45
2.1.2.7. Boron Tris(trifluoromethanesulfonate) 46
2.1.2.8. Aprotic Organic Superacids
(Vol’pin’s Systems) 46
2.2. Binary Superacids 47
2.2.1. Binary Brønsted Superacids 47
2.2.1.1. Hydrogen Fluoride–Fluorosulfuric Acid 47
2.2.1.2. Hydrogen Fluoride–Trifluoromethanesulfonic
Acid 47
2.2.1.3. Tetra(Hydrogen Sulfato)Boric Acid–Sulfuric
Acid 47
2.2.2. Conjugate Brønsted–Lewis Superacids 47
2.2.2.1. Oleums–Polysulfuric Acids 47
2.2.2.2. Fluorosulfuric Acid–Antimony Pentafluoride
(‘‘Magic Acid’’) 49
2.2.2.3. Fluorosulfuric Acid–Sulfur Trioxide 53
2.2.2.4. HSO3F–MFn(SO3F)5n; n ¼ 3, 4,
M ¼ Nb, Ta 53
2.2.2.5. Fluorosulfuric Acid–Arsenic Pentafluoride 54
2.2.2.6. Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acid–Based Systems 54
2.2.2.7. Hydrogen Fluoride–Antimony Pentafluoride
(Fluoroantimonic Acid) 56
2.2.2.8. Hydrogen Fluoride– Phosphorus Pentafluoride 59
2.2.2.9. Hydrogen Fluoride–Tantalum Pentafluoride 60
3. Carbocations in Superacid Systems 83
3.1. Introduction 83
3.1.1. Development of the Carbocation Concept: Early
Kinetic and Stereochemical Studies 83
3.1.2. Observation of Stable, Long-Lived Carbocations 84
3.1.3. General Concept of Carbocations 85
3.2. Methods of Generating Carbocations in Superacids Systems 87
3.3. Methods and Techniques in the Study of Carbocations 88
3.3.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra in Solution 88
3.3.2. 13C NMR Chemical Shift Additivity 89
3.3.3. Isotopic Perturbation Technique 90
3.3.4. Solid-State 13C NMR 90
3.3.5. X-ray Diffraction 91
CONTENTS ix
3.3.6. Tool of Increasing Electron Demand 91
3.3.7. Core Electron Spectroscopy 91
3.3.8. Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 92
3.3.9. Electronic Spectroscopy 92
3.3.10. Low-Temperature Solution Calorimetric Studies 92
3.3.11. Quantum Mechanical Calculations 93
3.4. Trivalent Carbocations 93
3.4.1. Alkyl Cations 93
3.4.1.1. Early Unsuccessful Attempts 93
3.4.1.2. Preparation from Alkyl Fluorides
in Antimony Pentafluoride Solution
and Spectroscopic Studies 94
3.4.1.3. Preparation from Other Precursors 108
3.4.1.4. Observation in Different Superacids 112
3.4.2. Cycloalkyl Cations 112
3.4.3. Bridgehead Cations 116
3.4.4. Cyclopropylmethyl Cations 120
3.4.5. Alkenyl Cations 123
3.4.6. Alkadienyl and Polyenylic Cations 125
3.4.7. Arenium Ions 126
3.4.8. Ethylenearenium Ions 132
3.4.9. Propargyl and Allenylmethyl Cations
(Mesomeric Vinyl Cations) 134
3.4.10. The Phenyl Cation 139
3.4.11. Arylmethyl and Alkylarylmethyl Cations 140
3.4.12. Carbodications and Polycations 147
3.4.13. Aromatic Stabilized Cations and Dications 157
3.4.14. Polycyclic Arene Dications 162
3.4.15. Fullerene Cations 164
3.4.16. Heteroatom-Stabilized Cations 167
3.4.16.1. Halogen as Heteroatom 167
3.4.16.2. Oxygen as Heteroatom 172
3.4.16.3. Sulfur as Heteroatom 192
3.4.16.4. Nitrogen as Heteroatom 195
3.4.17. Carbocations Complexed to Metal Atoms 204
3.5. Equilibrating (Degenerate) and Higher (Five or Six)
Coordinate (Nonclassical) Carbocations 206
3.5.1. Alkonium Ions (Protonated Alkanes CnH2nþ3þ) 206
3.5.1.1. The Methonium Ion (CH5þ) 207
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Các khía cạnh chung 1
1.1. Xác định độ chua 1
1.1.1. Axit và các căn cứ 1
1.1.2. The Scale pH 3
1.1.3. Chức năng Tính axit 4
1.2. Định nghĩa của Superacids 6
1.2.1. Phạm vi của các tính axít 7
1.3. Các loại Superacids 9
1.3.1. Tiểu Superacids 10
1.3.2. Binary Superacids 10
1.3.3. Ternary Superacids 10
1.3.4. Rắn Superacids 10
1.4. Kỹ thuật thực nghiệm cho phép đo độ chua
(axit proton) 11
1.4.1. Phương pháp quang phổ 11
1.4.2. Phương pháp cộng hưởng từ hạt nhân 13
1.4.2.1. Đo phím Shift Chemical 15
1.4.2.2. Đo tỷ giá Dựa
trên Line-Shape Analysis (DNMR:
Năng động, cộng hưởng từ hạt nhân) 18
1.4.3. Phương pháp điện hóa 20
1.4.4. Chemical Kinetics 20
1.4.5. Vòng đấu của proton Căn cứ yếu 22
1.4.6. Các tính toán lý thuyết và Superacidity
trong giai đoạn khí 22
1.4.7. Ước tính Sức Mạnh của axit Lewis 23
1.4.8. Kỹ thuật thử nghiệm áp dụng cho rắn axit 2
siêu axít Hệ thống 35
2.1. Tiểu Superacids 35
2.1.1. Bronsted Superacids 35
2.1.1.1 percloric Acid 35
2.1.1.2. Chlorosulfuric Acid 36
2.1.1.3. Fluorosulfuric Acid 37
2.1.1.4. Axit Perfluoroalkanesulfonic 38
2.1.1.5. Hydrogen Fluoride 40
2.1.1.6. Carborane Superacids H (CB11HR5X6) 41
2.1.2. Lewis Superacids 42
2.1.2.1. Antimony Pentafluoride 42
2.1.2.2. Arsenic Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.3. Phosphorus Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.4. Tantali và niobi Pentafluoride 44
2.1.2.5. Boron trifluoride 44
2.1.2.6. Tris (pentafluorophenyl) borane 45
2.1.2.7. Boron Tris (trifloromethansunfonat) 46
2.1.2.8. Proton có hữu Superacids
(Systems Vol'pin của) 46
2.2. Binary Superacids 47
2.2.1. Binary Bronsted Superacids 47
2.2.1.1. Hydrogen Fluoride-Fluorosulfuric Acid 47
2.2.1.2. Hydrogen Fluoride-Trifluoromethanesulfonic
Acid 47
2.2.1.3. Tetra (Hydrogen Sulfato) Boric Acid-Sulfuric
Acid 47
2.2.2. Conjugate Bronsted-Lewis Superacids 47
2.2.2.1. Oleums-Polysulfuric Acids 47
2.2.2.2. Fluorosulfuric Acid-Antimon Pentafluoride
('' Magic Acid '') 49
2.2.2.3. Fluorosulfuric Acid-Sulfur trioxide 53
2.2.2.4. HSO3F-MFN (SO3F) 5 n?; n ¼ 3, 4,
M ¼ Nb, Ta 53
2.2.2.5. Fluorosulfuric Acid-Asen Pentafluoride 54
2.2.2.6. Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acid-Based Systems 54
2.2.2.7. Hydrogen Fluoride-Antimon Pentafluoride
(Acid Fluoroantimonic) 56
2.2.2.8. Hydrogen Fluoride- Phosphorus Pentafluoride 59
2.2.2.9. Hydrogen Fluoride-Tantali Pentafluoride 60
3. cacbocation trong các hệ thống siêu axít 83
3.1. Giới thiệu 83
3.1.1. Phát triển của Carbocation Concept: Early
Kinetic và lập thể nghiên cứu 83
3.1.2. Quan sát sự ổn định, cacbocation dài sống 84
3.1.3. Tổng Concept của cacbocation 85
3.2. Phương pháp Tạo cacbocation trong Superacids Hệ thống 87
3.3. Các phương pháp và kỹ thuật trong nghiên cứu của cacbocation 88
3.3.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra trong giải pháp 88
3.3.2. 13C NMR Chemical phím Shift additivity 89
3.3.3. Isotopic Sự lo Kỹ thuật 90
3.3.4. Solid-State 13C NMR 90
3.3.5. X-ray Diffraction 91
NỘI DUNG ix
3.3.6. Công cụ của Tăng Nhu cầu điện tử 91
3.3.7. Lõi Electron Spectroscopy 91
3.3.8. Hồng ngoại và Raman Spectroscopy 92
3.3.9. Quang phổ điện tử 92
3.3.10. Giải pháp Low-Nhiệt độ Calorimetric nghiên cứu 92
3.3.11. Quantum Cơ tính toán 93
3.4. Hóa trị ba cacbocation 93
3.4.1. Alkyl Cation 93
3.4.1.1. Early nỗ lực không thành công 93
3.4.1.2. Chuẩn bị từ Alkyl Fluorides
trong Antimony Pentafluoride Giải pháp
và quang phổ học 94
3.4.1.3. Chuẩn bị từ Precursors khác 108
3.4.1.4. Quan sát trong Superacids khác nhau 112
3.4.2. Xycloalkyl Cation 112
3.4.3. Cầu Cation 116
3.4.4. Cyclopropylmethyl Cation 120
3.4.5. Alkenyl Cation 123
3.4.6. Alkadienyl và Polyenylic Cation 125
3.4.7. Arenium ion 126
3.4.8. Ethylenearenium ion 132
3.4.9. Propargyl và Allenylmethyl Cation
(Mesomeric Vinyl Cation) 134
3.4.10. Các Phenyl Cation 139
3.4.11. Arylmethyl và Alkylarylmethyl Cation 140
3.4.12. Carbodications và Polycations 147
3.4.13. Thơm ổn định Cation và Dications 157
3.4.14. Polycyclic arene Dications 162
3.4.15. Fullerene Cation 164
3.4.16. Heteroatom-ổn định Cation 167
3.4.16.1. Halogen như heteroatom 167
3.4.16.2. Oxygen như heteroatom 172
3.4.16.3. Sulfur như heteroatom 192
3.4.16.4. Nitơ heteroatom 195
3.4.17. Cacbocation tạo phức kim loại nguyên tử 204
3.5. Equilibrating (thoái hóa) và cao hơn (Năm hoặc Sáu)
Phối hợp (Nonclassical) cacbocation 206
3.5.1. Alkonium ion (proton Ankan CnH2nþ3þ) 206
3.5.1.1. Các Methonium Ion (CH5þ) 207
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