5.2. Estimation of FAVAR with benchmark lending rate as instrument
In the second model, we estimate the response of the industrial production and inflation from a positive shock in the benchmark lending rate. The optimal lag length for this model without break is two. We also find that there is a structural break across the two sub-periods (see Appendix A.2). Panel A of Fig. 7 depicts that the industrial production does not respond to a contractionary monetary policy shock in the first period. Although the impulse responses of price indices are gently reduced, the effects only last 15 months. Panel B of Fig. 7 shows the response functions under a more flexible currency regime. The industrial production responds with a prolonged and moderate reduction to an upward shock of the interest rate. However, the price indices soar, resulting in price puzzles for about 20 months following a tightening policy shock. In the meantime, Shanghai composite index and fixed asset investment, which were literally unresponsive to the policy shock in the first sample, declined for an extended period in the second sample.
Dickinson and Liu (2007) found that lending rates play an increasingly critical role on affecting the real economy from 1984 through 1997, during which the existence of capital control has left some room for monetary policy authorities. Since 1998, China has gradually moved towards capital account liberalization. Both trade surplus and capital inflows have experienced a rapid expansion after 2001 when China entered theWTO. They have undermined the influence of the capital control. The rigidity of the exchange ratemakes it difficult for the PBC to use interest rate instruments to adjust the domestic economy. Our results show that before the exchange rate reformof 2005, both the repo and benchmark lending ratewere not effective.When the central bank raises the lending rate, the industrial production and price indices show insignificant and short-lived responses.When the exchange rate is more flexible, a mildly significant and long-lasting downward effect is observed on the industrial production, Shanghai composite index and fixed asset investment. Yet, interest rates also generate price puzzles for both consumer and producer price indices.
Therefore, the effectiveness of market-based monetary policy only has a small improvement under a more flexible exchange rate policy. Our results are consistent with the finding of Fan, Yu, and Zhang (2011), who show that a change in the interest rate has little effect on both inflation rate and real output.
5.3. Estimation of FAVAR with monetary factor as instrument
Third, we assess the effect of a change in market-based monetary stance of the PBC on the real economy. Because monetary and financial markets have not been fully liberalized, the transmission channels of the policy instruments are not as efficient as those in developed countries. The PBC has to rely on a number of policy instruments simultaneously to influence the economy. We randomly choose market-based measures, directly or indirectly managed by the PBC as potential monetary instruments.
We extract a monetary factor from these 15 data series by maximum likelihood estimation. Table 1 showsthatthisfactorispositively related to interest rates. Themovement of this factor, as depicted in Fig. 8, resembles those of the repo and benchmark lending rates.
As a result, an upward shock of this factor can be interpreted as a tightening monetary stance. A structural break is found, and the optimal lag length is two (Appendix A.3). Panel A of Fig. 9 displays the impulse response functions for an upward shock of the monetary factor before the exchange rate reform. When the central bank takes on acontractionary monetary stance, its negative impact on the industrial production and price indices is significant. These notable responses suggest that a combination of market-based instruments is more effective than a single instrument, such as the repo or benchmark rates. Shanghai composite index and fixed asset investment, among others, remained unsusceptible to themarket-based policy shock under the rigid exchange rate regime as presented above. Panel B of Fig. 9 presents the impulse responses generated from FAVAR from September 2002 through February 2010. Not surprisingly, a downward and persistent pressure on the industrial production builds up a few months after the onset of contractionary policy, together with a visibly lowered stock index and investment. After comparing the monetary policy effect on the two subsamples, it is found that the combination of market-oriented tools plays an increasing role in a more flexible exchange rate arrangement. It also implies that the PBC prefers a combination of market-based policy tools to control its economy. However, the link between market-based instruments and real economy is still weak. Our result is consistent with Koivu (2009). A possible explanation is that China's private enterprises are difficult to obtain finance fromthe state-owned banking system. They are either self-financed or financed by the underground banks,where the interest rate does not followthe central bank interest rate settings. This undermines the impact of interest rate on the economy through credit channel.
5.4. Estimation of FAVAR with total loan as instrument
Other than market-based instruments, the PBC also employs non-market-based instruments to prop up the economy and contain the price level. The total loan, which is affected by both interest rates and administrative measures, is a major indicator of the general monetary stance of the central bank. The PBC can tighten bank lending by raising the interest rates or by window guidance. From Appendix A.4, the optimal lag length is found to be two, and we conclude a structural break in this system. Fig. 10 shows the impulse responses of economic variables to a lowering of the growth rate of total loans. Under the fixed exchange rate(Panel A) scheme, a negative shock in total loan results in a rapid and persistent decline in the industrial production, fixed asset investment and real estate investment. The price indices are also lowered a few months after the contractionary monetary policy.
Nevertheless, the stock market is not significantly affected.When the exchange rate turns more flexible, as depicted in Panel B of Fig. 10, a decrease in total loan also considerably reduces the industrial production, fixed asset investment and the consumer price index. These results reveal that the total loan is an effective policy instrument on regulating the economy.
5.5. Estimation of FAVAR with M2 as instrument
For the last model, we estimate the impulse response functions of the industrial production and inflation, among other variables, for a downward shock in the growth rate ofM2. The lag length equals one according to the SC criteria. A structural break is also found in this system (Appendix A.5). Panel A of Fig. 11 shows that under the pegged exchange rate regime, M2 shock initiates mild responses from the industrial production and the consumer price index. Thus, an increase in money supply stimulates real economic activities and raises general price levels. Additionally, the fixed asset investment, real estate investment and Shanghai composite index have dropped after the policy shock. The influence of M2 on the economy is explicit, although less significant, after the exchange rate reform. Panel B of Fig. 11 shows that an increase in the growth rate of M2 boosts the industrial production and consumer price index, but the effects die out within 15 months after the shock, along with insignificant responses for the investments and stock market. Our results corroborate the finding of Fan et al. (2011) that the growth rate of money supply has a material effect on both inflation and output. Compared with the estimation results of the repo and benchmark rates,the growth rate of total loan and money supply are more successful in managing real economic activities and price levels. As explained in Sections 2.1.3 and 2.1.4, total loan and M2 can be adjusted either by varying the interest rates or by window guidance. Neither the repo nor the benchmark rate has a significant effect onM2, as depicted in Figs. 6 and 7, implying thatwindow guidance is the apparent driving force of changes in money supply.
5.6. Policy implications
By comparing the results of different policy instruments, we show that the growth rate of total loan and money supply are more effective than market-based monetary instruments in regulating the economy. When the quantity of loan or broad money supply grows at a higher rate, the industrial production and consumer price index rise immediately after the shock. Nevertheless, the real economy and price level respondweakly to the shocks of repo and benchmark rates. This shows that the PBC could not solely rely on the use of interest rates to fine-tune the economy. Due to the slow pace of liberalization of interest rate, administrative tools, such as window guidance and regulatory adjustment, are still crucial to effective monetary policy implementation.
Our results also suggest that market-based policies have generally mild effects on the industrial production and price level.There are several possible explanations for this. The first is the high level of excess reserve in the banking industry (Green, 2005).The high excess reserve ratio, about 4% from 2005 through 2007, absorbed much of the influence of the monetary policies. Second, the partially liberalized money market also restrains the capacity of market-based policies. Although numerous interest rate liberalization reforms have been implemented in the past decade, the ceiling on deposit rates and floor on lending rates are still in place, constraining the capacity for effective monetary policy. In addition, the policy factor that tracks the monetary stance for market-based policies has a more pronounced ef
đang được dịch, vui lòng đợi..
