[116e119]. However, these studies are not exclusively conducted with probiotic strains but studies involving probiotics in gnotobi- otic fish will certainly able to address the inter- and intra-species difference among different probiotics as well as well can unlock several aspects of their role in piscine immune system at molecular level.7. Factors affecting the immunomodulating potency of probioticsModulation of host immunity is one of the most purported benefits of probiotics consumption [120] and fish is no exception. However, the mechanisms by which probiotics affect the immune system of host are unknown [39,121]. While factors such as adhe- sion properties, attachment site, stress factors, diet and environ- mental conditions determine the colonization of probiotics in the gut of host [122], probiotics often exert host specific [123] and strain specific differences in their modes of action [124]. Never- theless the origin and source of probiotics [73], viability [125], dose [126] and duration of supplementation [127] can regulate their activities. There is no doubt that probiotics can stimulate piscine immune system like other animals but inappropriate dose and/or duration of probiotics supplementation can cause undesirable results [127]. Therefore, the type of probiotics, dose kinetics, and method of administration with respect to fish are critical factors that can regulate immune responses in fish. 7.1. Types of strainThe dominant group of probiotics that are used in fish culture belong to Gram þve especially LAB, Bacillus (B. subtilis, B. lichen- iformis, B. circulans) and bifidobacteria groups. On the other hand certain strains of Aeromonas (Aeromonas hydrophila, A. sobria), Vibrio (Vibrio fluvialis), Pseudomonas and Enterobacteria species are the Gram ve probiotics [128]. All these bacteria differ greatly in their mode of action including the ability to trigger immune system and therefore every probiotics differ from each other by their functional role. It is recognized that each strain has unique prop- erties and the probiotic effects of a specific strain must not be extrapolated to other strains [129,130]. Gnotobiotic studies also indicate the strain specific differences among probiotics in stimu- lating immune system in animals [111,115].Previous studies in piscine system also documented inter- and intra-species differences in immunostimulating ability of different probiotics [52,65,67,70]. Such type of difference is also evident by the difference in triggering respiratory burst activity, by closely related species like S. putrefaciens and Shewanella baltica in Sene- galese sole (Solea senegalensis) [52] even at a proven beneficiary effective dose of the same probiotics in S. aurata and S. senegalensis [50,51]. Similarly, variation in stimulating cellular innate immune responses under in vitro and in vivo conditions among probiotics belong to 51M6, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis and B. subtilis group are also recorded [50,54,70,71]. Recently, Peters et al. [67] not only recorded difference in immunostimulating activity but also in disease protecting ability among two established probiotics namely A. sobria and B. thermosphacta in O. mykiss.7.1.1. Indigenous vs exogenousSelection of probiotics is very critical because inappropriate microorganisms can lead to undesirable effects in host [131]. An ideal probiotic, irrespective of its source should able to colonize, establish and multiply in the host gut. Most of the commercial probiotics used for terrestrial animals are now being used in aquaculture practices. Although, these probiotics are exogenous, their success in aquaculture practices can't be overlooked. However, sometimes commercially available probiotics are rela- tively ineffective because of non-fish origin they are unable to survive and/or remain viable at optimum concentration in gut [18,132,133].On the other hand probiotics from the same species and/or its natural environment could be best approach for better efficacy in host [134]. The strategy of isolating probiotics from the gut of mature animals and then use in immature animals of the same species has been successfully applied in fish [17,23,24,135]. There is a general consensus that probiotics from autochthonous source have a greater chance of competing with resident microbes and of becoming predominant within a short period of intake and to persist in the colonic environment for some time after the with- drawal of probiotics [136,137]. For instance, Carnevali et al. [137], recorded a significantly decreased larvae and fry mortality by using Lactobacillus fructivorans, isolated from gut of S. aurata. Further- more, it is assumed that host immune cells do not react with bacteria that are naturally occurring on their surfaces and autoch- thonous in nature [71].7.1.2. Monospecies vs multispeciesA wide range of probiotics, containing either monospecies or multispecies of microorganisms are commercially available. In recent times a number of studies have confirmed the beneficial effects of both forms of probiotics under in vitro and in vivo conditions. However, it is postulated that multispecies/multistrain probiotics are more effective and consistent than their monospecific counter parts since mixed cultures may exert synergistic probiotic properties [138]. Many times induction of greater systemic innate immunity has been recorded by using multispecies probiotics in fish [42,53,71]. Aly et al. [42] reported significantly high respiratory burst activity and lysozyme level in O. niloticus fed with a mixture of B. subtilis and L. acidophilus. Besides systemic effects, multispecies formulation of probiotics was the most effective in triggering the local gut immunity [72,105]. Salinas et al. [72] recorded that B. subtilis and L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis in combination can increasethe numbers of IgMþ cells and AGs in the intestinal mucosa ofS. aurata juvenile within 3 weeks of supplementation whilst indi- vidually both the probiotic strains failed to induce any change.However, different probiotics when supplemented in combined form should complement each other and acquire different niches within the gut microflora environment for executing desirable immune stimulatory and other beneficial effects in host [70]. Nevertheless, the probiotic sources and their relatedness can also affect the synergistic effects in combined form i.e., multispecies containing different species may be more effective as compared to multistrain probiotics [49]. For example, probiotics like Pdp11 and51M6 which belong to Vibrionaceae family showed no synergistic immunostimulatory activity in combined form as compared to individual treatment in O. mykiss [49] but other probiotics belong to different families such as Lactobacillus and Bacillus species are found to complement each other by exerting synergistic immu- nomodulating responses in fish [70].7.1.3. Spore former vs non-spore formerBacteria belong to both spore former and non-spore formers are used as probiotics. Several spore forming bacteria which produce a wide range of antagonistic compounds can be valuable as pro- biotics [139]. Among spore formers, Bacillus spores are routinely being used as probiotics in human and animal practices due to their immunostimulatory properties [140,141]. In aquaculture, B. subtilis and B. licheniformis are most commonly used probiotics [139]. In O. mykiss, Raida et al. [143] reported immunity enhancement and significant protection against yersioniosis by using commercial probiotics containing B. subtilis and B. licheniformis spores. Bacillus spores have been shown to increase the survival and production of channel catfish [144]. Similarly, B. subtilis spores when introduced into rearing water eliminated Vibrio species from the larvae of snook [145]. The spores of Bacillus toyoi and other Bacillus species when used as feed additive increased the growth of S. maximus [146,147] and common snook (Centropomus undecimalis) [53].Spore formers possess additional advantage that they can resist adverse environmental conditions. The long term advantages of using spores as probiotics is that they are heat-stable and can survive transit across the stomach barrier, properties that cannot be assured with other probiotics that are given in the vegetative form [142]. However, the majority of probiotics currently available are bacteria which are non-spore formers i.e., they are given as vege- tative cells (usually as lyophilized preparations) and several non- spore probiotics like LAB group of bacteria exhibit very promising immunostimulatory results. Nevertheless, the combination of both spore former and non- spore former are also found to increase immunity in fish [70,72,76].7.1.4. Viable vs non-viableProbiotics, as per definition, are viable microorganisms with documented beneficial effects on the overall health status of host. Viability is an important property of any probiotics which help them to adhere and subsequent colonization in the intestinal tract of host [148]. However, certain probiotics in inactivated form can potentially elicit similar effects in host compared to viable probiotics. Furthermore, several bacteria in non-viable form are found not only to adhere to tissue culture cells of animals [149,150] but also to augment the systemic and mucosal immune responses in host [151]. Therefore, the concept of incorporating inactivated probiotics has surfaced for aquaculture practices especially due to the fact that probiotics are usually found in a transient state and often expelled out immediately after the withdrawal of the feed
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