in hydrobionts [70].Different probiotics in inactivated form also exhibited promising immunomodulatory and protection in various fish species. Although, immunostimulating potency of inactivated probiotics under in vitro [71] and in vivo conditions [64] as well as ability to control diseases [54] has been documented, viable probiotics are proved to be better stimulator of immune system in any animals including fish [76,101,152,153]. In a comparative study, Panigrahi et al. [64] reported that probiotic strain of L. rhamnosus in viable form is a better immune inducer compared to its heat inactivated form.The immunomodulating activity of non-viable probionts could possibly be attributed to the presence of certain conserved micro- bial components such as capsular polysaccharides, peptidoglycans and lipoteichoic acids which are the potent stimulator of piscine immune system [153,154]. Therefore, the whole and/or certain components of the inactivated probiotics are believed to interact with the epithelial cells of the gut and ultimately leading to an enhanced immune response in host.7.2. Dose of probioticsDose of probiotics could be limiting factor for achieving optimum beneficial effects in any host [155,156]. The optimum concentration of probiotics is not only required for establishment and subsequent proliferation in gut but also need to exert various beneficial effects including immunostimulatory activity. Different in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that immune response of fish varies with the concentration of probiotics. The dose of probiotics is usually selected based on their ability to enhance the growth and protection in host. For instance, Brunt et al. [48] determined the effective dose of the probiotic strain belong to Bacillus species to be2 108 cells at which they have recorded least percentagemortality in O. mykiss during challenge study. The in vitro stimu- latory activities of probiotics like Pdp11, 51M6, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis and B. subtilis are found to be dose dependent [71]. Similarly, immunostimulatory activities of LAB and B. subtilis in fish under in vivo condition also vary in a dose dependant manner [57,64].In aquaculture the dose of probiotics usually varies from106e10 CFU/g feed. The optimum dose of a probiotics can vary with respect to host and also type of immune parameters. Panigrahi et al.[63] recorded high serum lysozyme, phagocytic activity of head kidney leucocyte and complement activities in O. mykiss fed for 30 days with L. rhamnosus strain at 1011 CFU/g feed but not at a dose of109 CFU/g feed. Furthermore, stimulation of a particular immuneresponse with respect to different tissue/organ also varies with dose. For instance, elevation of lysozyme activity in serum and skin in M. miiuy is reported at two different doses i.e., 107 and 109 CFU ofC. butyricum/g feed, respectively [75]. On the other hand Son et al. [74], found best dose of probiotic for grouper (Epinephelus coioides) to be 108 CFU/kg of feed compared to 106 and 1010 CFU/kg ofL. plantarum in terms of growth, immune enhancement and protection. Therefore, lower dose can fail to stimulate the piscine immune system while high dose can exert deleterious effects [157].In another study, Son et al. [75] found higher dose (i. e. 1010 CFU/kg feed) of L. platarum failed to protect fish on challenge study despite enhancement of certain immune parameters at the particular dose. Earlier, Nikoskelainen et al. [157] also recorded higher percentage of mortality in O. mykiss fed at high dose ofL. rhamnosus (1012 CFU/g feed) compared to lower dose (109 CFU/g feed). Therefore, the dose of the individual probiotics needs to be determined for a particular host.7.3. Duration of feedingDuration of the probiotics feeding is another important factor that can affect the establishment, persistence and subsequent induction of immune responses in a host. In fish most of the beneficial effects like live weight gain, improved immunity and disease resistance have been recorded within a dietary probiotics feeding regime of 1e10 weeks. The time course for optimum induction of immune response differs with respect to probiotic strain and also type of immune parameter.The time course of probiotics feeding for stimulating innate immunity can also vary among different strains of probiotics in the same family [49]. Similarly difference in stimulating specific immune parameter is also dependent on feeding duration. For example Diaz-Rosales et al.[52] observed significant enhancement of respiratory burst activity by feeding probiotics for 60 days but earlier Dıaz-Rosales et al. [50], failed to detect significant enhancement of this activity when fed the heat inactivated form of the same probiotics for 4 weeks.However, several probiotics are often found to stimulate the piscine immune system within 2 weeks of supplementation. Shar- ifuzzaman and Austin [73] recorded highest cellular and humoral immunity at 2 weeks of feeding regime and further supplementa- tion lead to lowering at 3rd and 4th weeks of feeding. While some researchers believe a long feeding regime is not necessary for pro- biotics [49], the shorter feeding regime can cause sharp decline in immune response in fish [64]. Such type of decline may be due the failure of the probiotic strains to establish and multiply in the fish gut. Though, a long dietary feeding regime is advantageous to host in many aspects, more studies are required to establish the benefi- cial effect of short term regime is not just adjuvant effects.7.4. Mode of supplementationAlthough probiotics are used as dietary supplements, Moriarty [19] proposed to extend the definition of probiotics in aquaculture to microbial ‘‘water additives’’ and several probiotics are also directly used as water additives with documented health and environmental benefits [79]. In fish, probiotics are applied in different methods like bath, suspension and feed. However supplementation of probiotics as feed additive is best method for successful colonization and establishment in gut [19,23,158,159]. Oral administration of probiotics is more effective in enhancing immunity as well as subsequent protection as compared to water supplementation [76]. Likewise suspension or bioencapsulation of probiotics is usually adopted for fish larvae [146,159e163]. Pro- biotics like L. delbrueckii spp. delbrueckii when supplemented through live carriers like rotifers and artemia succeeded in stimu- lating local immunity in larvae [66,105].Apart from dietary supplementation, water borne uptake of probiotics can also modulate the piscine immune system with elevation of several immune parameters [76,78,79]. In a study Zhou et al. [79] found that among three probiotics (B. subtilis, B. coagulans,R. palustris) supplemented into water @1 107 CFU/ml in every2 days for 40 days, B. coagulans and R. palustris, showed promising result with improved growth, immunity and health status of O. niloticus.7.5. Environmental conditionsThe effectiveness of probiotics is dependent on the successful establishment of the probiotics in the gut. Several factors that
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