5. vai trò của p53 trong quy định chu kỳ tế bào ES (vai trò của p53 trong chu trình của tế bào gốc)The tumor suppressorp53 isessential tomaintain the genome integrity[37].Ithasbeenshownthatp53canleadtocellcycle arrest in response to DNA damage and induce proapoptotic signaling. Also, p53 can block G1 phase by activation of p21 [38, 39]. InmurineEScells,p53ishighlyexpressedinthecytoplasm under basal conditions [40, 41]. There are discrepancies betweenresults fromdifferent researchgroups regarding therole of p53 pathway in cell cycle regulation in ES cells. The possible explanations of these discrepancies are the use of different ES cell lines, and the use of different experimental protocols. Although earlier studies had shown that the p53mediated response is inactive in ES cells due to the cytoplasmic sequestration of p53 [40], the recent studies reportedthatp53isactivatedandtranslocatedtothenucleusafter DNAdamage,andinducedifferentiationofES cells bydirectly suppressing Nanog expression in ES cells [42–44]. It has beenreportedthatafterUVirradiation,theabilityofmurineES cells to form colonies is more strongly decreased in p53positivemurineEScellsthaninthosewhichlackthep53[45]. However, unlike murine ES cells, human p53 is localized in the nucleus of human ES cells at a low concentration, and theexposureofhumanEScellstoDNAdamageinducesp53dependent cell cycle arrest rather than differentiation [33]. Interestingly, a recent study showed that p53 may be functional in unstressed murine ES cells, where chemical inhibition of p53 leads to suppression of ES cell proliferation by accumulating the cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle [44]. Taken together, these findings suggest that p53 has dual functions in ES cells. On the one hand, it induces apoptosis and ES cell differentiation after exposure to DNA damage, and on the other hand, it promotes ES cell proliferation by regulatingtheEScellcycleunder standardcultureconditions. Several reports have studied the function of p53-p21 pathway in stem cells [40, 43, 46–48]. The arrest of cell cycle in G1 phase is mediated by Cdk inhibitor p21, a downstream gene target of p53 [21]. In human ES cells, in response to differentiationsignals,p53istransientlyactivatedandbindsto the p53-responsive elements (p53REs) of downstream gene target p21 to enhance the accumulation of cells in G1 phase leading to elongate of G1 and prolong the cell cycle [49]. Exposure of human ES cells to DNA damage causes a cell cycle arrest at G1 phase accompanied by accumulation and phosphorylation of p53. Moreover, the DNA damage increases the expression of p21 mRNA without any change in the p21 protein level suggesting that p21 is not a regulator of G1/S progression in human ES cells [27, 50]. However, overexpressionofp21inhumanEScellsresultsinanincrease in the percentage of cells in G1 phase [51]. A recent study showed that the p21 protein is not detectable in undifferentiated human ES cells under basal conditions and after DNA damagebecausethetranslationofp21mRNAispreventedby the miRNA pathway, particularly miR-302 s [50]. It can be deduced from the above described data that there isadifferenceincellcycleregulationbetweenhumanEScells and somatic cells.Ithas beenreportedthatinhuman ES cells, the p53-p21 pathway may be involved in the regulation of entry into differentiation instead of maintaining intact DNA [46], suggesting that p53-p21 pathway is non-functional in undifferentiated ES cells.6.Role of microRNAs in ES Cell Cycle RegulationThe microRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs (18–24 nucleotides in length). They down-regulategene expression by attaching themselves to messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and preventing their translation into proteins [52, 53]. Specifically, miRNAs regulate cell proliferation by interacting with cyclin/Cdk complexes. Wang et al. named the miRNAs which are expressed in undifferentiated ES cells and they play roles in cell cycle regulation, ES cell-specific cell cycle-regulating miRNAs (ESCC miRNAs). ESCC miRNAs include; miR-291a-3p, miR-291b-3p, miR-294, miR295, and miR-302 [51]. These miRNAs can rescue the defect in the cell cycle and enhance the transition of the cells from G1 to S phase [51] by suppressing p21, RB, and Lats2 which are inhibitors along the Cdk2-Cyclin E pathway [18] (Fig.3). An important role for miRNAs in the regulation of ES cell cycle has been inferred from the ES cell miRNA knockout models through deletion of either Dicer or Dgcr8 [54–56], whicharerequiredformaturationofmiRNAs[56].Ithasbeen found that Dgcr8-null murine ES cells are viable and proliferate slowly due to the accumulation of the cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, indicating a defect in the G1-S transition [56]. Also, Dicer-deficient murine ES cells showed a reduced proliferation rate and an altered cell cycle profile [54, 55]. Interestingly, it has been reported that 14 different miRNAs, which are highly expressed in ES cells, can rescue the cell cycle defects in the Dgcr8-null cells [56]. These findings indicate that miRNAs play an essential role in enhancing the G1-S transition in ES cells. It has been reported that Let-7 family members can suppress self-renewal in the Dgcr8- null murine ES cells but not wild-type ES cells [57]. Furthermore, overexpression of ESCC miRNAs into the Dgcr8- null murine ES cells, prevent loss of self-renewal induced by the let-7 miRNAs [57], indicating that the let-7 and ESCC miRNAs have opposing effects on ES cell self-renewal (Fig. 3). Taken together, these findings suggest that miRNAs which are normally expressed in ES cells prevent let-7 from silencing ES cell self-renewal. In human ES cells, it has been reported that miRNAs are alsoessentialfortheG2/Mtransition.SuppressionofDiceror Drosha results in accumulation of ES cells in the G2 phase [58]. Interestingly, miR-195 overexpression rescues this defect by inhibiting Wee1 levels. Wee1 is a kinase that is an inhibitor for the Cdk1-Cyclin B complex, which is essential for the G2/M transition [59] (Fig.3). However, in murine ES cells, lack of Dicer or Dgcr8 has no effect on G2 phase and miR-195 does not rescue proliferation defects of Dgcr8-null EScells,suggestinga difference between human ES cellsand murine ES cells. These data suggest that miR-195 may affect on targets that normally suppress the progression of the cell cycle at the G2/M transition in human ES cells [58]. Furthermore, the overexpression of miR-372 significantly downregulates p21 levels in Dicer-deficient human ES cells [58] (Fig.3). Fig. 3 A schematic representation of the role of microRNAs in the regulation of ES cell cycle. In murine ES cells, ESCC (ES cell-specific cellcycle-regulating)andlet-7miRNAshaveopposingeffectsontheG1S transition. The ESCC miRNAs promote the transition of the cells from G1 to S phase by suppressing p21, RB, and Lats2 which are inhibitors along the Cdk2-cyclin E pathway. However, let-7 miRNAs have an Also, miR-92b has been found to be required for G1-S transition of the human ES cell cycle by its suppressing effect onthe Cdkinhibitor 57,a G1/Scheckpointgene[60].Another study demonstrated that inhibition of miR-302 family members in human ES cells can suppress the cell cycle progressionand cause a G1 arrest[61]. The effectofmiR-302 on cellcycleismediatedbytheregulationofcyclinD1andCdk4 post-transcriptionally [61], suggesting the important role of the miR-302 family in G1/S transition of ES cell cycle. Taken together, these findings suggest that miRNA pathway is essential for proper progression of the ES cell cycle
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