Alternatively, some studies have empirically investigated a quadratic relationship between insider ownership and firm performance. A quadratic relationship means that firm perfor- mance first increases and then decreases as insider ownership rises. For example, Stulz (1988) developed a model in which the relationship between the proportion of voting rights controlled by insiders and firm performance was non-linearly related. The results suggested that firm performance reached a maximum point at around 50% insider ownership. Consistent with Stulz (1988), McConnell and Servaes (1990) found a similar curvilinear relation- ship between insider ownership and firm performance. McConnell and Servaes (1990) regressed Tobin’s q on the linear term and squared term of insider ownership. They reported a positive influence of the linear term and a negative coefficient of the squared term, which supported a curvilinear relationship between insider ownership and firm performance.linear term
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