uniqueness of the brand associations play a critical role in determining the differential response making up the brand equity.Deciding on a positioning requires determining a frame of reference (by identifying the target market and the nature of competition), the optimal points-of-parity and points-of-difference brand associations, and an overall brand mantra as a summary. First, marketers need to understand con-sumer behavior and the consideration sets that consumers adopt in making brand choices. After establishing this frame of reference, they can then turn to identifying the best possible points-of-parity and points-of-difference.Points-of-difference are those associations that are unique to the brand, strongly held, and favorably evaluated by consumers. Marketers should ind points-of-difference associations that are strong, favorable, and unique based on desirability, deliverability, and differentiation consid-erations, as well as the resulting anticipated levels of sales and costs that might be expected with achieving those points-of-difference.Points-of-parity, on the other hand, are those associations that are not necessarily unique to the brand but may in fact be shared with other brands. Category points-of-parity associa-tions are necessary to being a legitimate and credible product offering within a certain category. Competitive points-of-parity associations negate competitors’ points-of-differences. Correla-tional points-of-parity negate any possible disadvantages or negatives that might also arise from a point-of-difference.Finally, a brand mantra is an articulation of the “heart and soul” of the brand, a three- to ive-word phrase that captures the irrefutable essence or spirit of the brand positioning and brand values. Its purpose is to ensure that all employees and all external marketing partners understand what the brand is, most fundamentally, in order to represent it with consumers.The choice of these four ingredients determines the brand positioning and the desired brand knowledge structures.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. Apply the categorization model to a product category other than beverages. How do con-sumers make decisions whether or not to buy the product, and how do they arrive at their inal brand decision? What are the implications for brand equity management for the brands in the category? How does it affect positioning, for example?2. Pick a category basically dominated by two main brands. Evaluate the positioning of each brand. Who are their target markets? What are their main points-of-parity and points-of-difference? Have they deined their positioning correctly? How might it be improved?3. Consider a book store in your area. What competitive frames of reference does it face? What are the implications of those frames of reference for its positioning?4. Can you think of any negatively correlated attributes and beneits other than those listed in Figure 2-6? Can you think of any other strategies to deal with negatively correlated attri-
butes and beneits?
5. What do you think of Naomi Klein’s positions as espoused in No Logos? How would you
respond to her propositions? Do you agree or disagree about her beliefs on the growth of
corporate power?
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