students in an urban public school. Her results indicated that students who received instr uction with concrete manipulatives out performed students who used virtual manipulatives, but that both types of manipulatives enhanced the learning environment. Brown’s results are suspect, however, since there were differences in the academic ability of the two groups. In addition, the types of virtual manipulatives used (Fraction Bars) were different from the types of concrete manipulatives used (Pattern Blocks). Both differences could have influenced the results.In their classroom study, Reimer and Moyer (2005) investigated virtual manipulatives, reporting increased success teaching fractions with virtual manipulatives over paper-and- pencil instruction. They also indicate that an advantage of virtual manipulatives is that they provide a connection between dynamic images and abstract symbols (pp. 10-11). Brown (2007) noted the advantage that virtual manipulatives take less time to manipulate.Other studies, such as those done by Olkun (2003) and Dorward & Heal (1999), indicate that virtual manipulatives are as engaging and provide equally as strong an effect on mathematical understanding as do concrete ones. These mixed findings led us to question what preservice teachers perceive as the advantages and disadvantages of each format of manipulative in teacher education.Implications for Teacher EducationA survey conducted in Australia by Howard et al. (1997) to determine the use of manipulatives among primary and secondary mathematics teachers raised questions regarding the issue of whether teachers’ acceptance of the usefulness of manipulatives has “a solid conceptual base” (p.9). The researchers also indicated that “there is a clearly expressed need…for further training in the use of manipulatives in mathematics teaching”, a fact that “has implications for both pre-service teacher education programs and teacher development sessions” (p. 9). Surely the same need exists in the United States. The NCATE / NCTM Program Standards (2003) for Middle Level Mathematics Teachers support investigation of the role of virtual manipulatives in the teaching and learning of mathematics.Perhaps the most compelling charge regarding the role of virtual manipulatives in mathematics education comes from two Turkish educators, Durmus & Karakirik (2006).They define a concrete experience in a mathematics contextnot by its physical or real-world characteristics but rather by how meaningful (are the) connections it could make with other mathematical ideas and situations…Hence, it is very important to encourage learners to reflect on actions they make in order to be able to perceive mathematical processes as objects. (p. 3)They further advocate, “every student should be given an opportunity to play with manipulatives. Just a demonstration
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