4.3 —Fly ashFor use in concrete, ASTM C618 specifies the require-ments for Class F and Class C fly ashes and Class N for raw or calcined natural pozzolans. Fly ash, a by-product of coal combustion, is widely used as a cementitious and pozzolanic ingredient in concrete. According to “ACI Concrete Terminology,” fly ash is “the finely divided residue that results from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and that is transported by flue gases from the combustion zone to the particle removal systems” (American Concrete Institute 2008). The terminology guide defines pozzolans as “a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material that in itself possess little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds having cementitious properties.” All fly ashes contain pozzolanic materials; however, some ashes exhibit varying degrees of cementitious properties in the absence of calcium hydroxide or portland cement because they contain some lime. For more information on fly ash in concrete, refer to ACI 232.2R.Fly ash in concrete makes efficient use of the hydration products of portland cement by consuming calcium hydroxide to produce additional cementing compounds. When concrete containing fly ash is properly cured, fly-ash reaction products partially fill in the spaces originally occupied by mixing water that were not filled by the hydration products of the cement, thus lowering the concrete permeability to water and aggressive chemicals (Manmohan and Mehta 1981; ACI 232.2R).Initially, fly ash was used as a partial mass or volume replacement of portland cement for economical reasons. As fly ash usage increased, researchers recognized the potential for improved properties of concrete containing fly ash. Because fly ash reacts with the alkali hydroxides in portland cement paste, it reduces alkali-aggregate reactions. In addition, fly ash may increase resistance to deterioration when exposed to sulfates, improve workability, reduce permeability, and reduce peak temperatures in mass concrete.
Due to their generally spherical shape, fly ash particles normally permit a reduction in water content for a given workability and improve pumpability and finishability. Bleeding may be reduced due to increased paste volume, lower water content for a given workability, and greater solid particle surface area. Other mechanisms by which fly ash reduces water can be referenced in ACI 232.2R.
On an equal mass replacement basis of portland cement with fly ash, early compressive strengths (less than 7 days) may be lower, particularly when using a Class F fly ash. If equivalent early strengths are required, the mixture proportions may need to be modified. Methods by which early-strength equivalency can be achieved include reducing the w/cm, adjusting the cementitious materials content, adjusting the chemical admixture dosage, modifying the fly ash content, the addition of silica fume, or a combination of all of the above. The 56- and 90-day strengths of fly ash concrete generally surpass mixtures of only portland cement. The ability of fly ash to aid in achieving high ultimate strengths has made it a very useful ingredient in the production of high-strength concrete (Kosmatka et al. 2002). After the rate of strength contribution of portland cement slows, the continued pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash contributes to increased strength gain at later ages if the concrete is kept
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