2003) and reminded that it's work in certain contexts is adversely impacting upon basic human rights of migrants, refugees and asylum seeker's ( HRW, 2003, Appendix 1). But clearly, a number of other organizations have found themselves implementing ' anti trafficking' projects or being involved in other activities that have been to a significant degree aiming at preventing irregular migration or improving border management, etc. Arguably, at least in some cases, these issues were not covered by their mandates.
It can be argued that the involvement of international organizations and non governmental actors lends credibility to and helps advance the essentially anti immigration agenda put forward by developed countries ( see Andrijasevic and Walters, 2010). And while making ethical choices in the complex reality of trafficking in persons is by no means easy, one should not shirk from an honest scrutiny of the ethical dilemmas involved.
So how can one advance human rights in this heavily politicized and cir cumscribed context? We wish to be in a position to propose a human rights approach capable of generating a broad consensus and thus having better chances of being implemented, but clearly many controversies prevent formulation of such an approach. At the same time, there is a relatively strong normative base of international human rights law. Human rights advocates should look for innovative strategies to induce the key duty bearers, the states, to analyse the aggregate impact of various policies such as, for example, restricted migration and international trade - which, it has been argued,place a high number of persons at rick of being trafficked or without effective means of extrication from trafficking - and o draw consequences from the knowledge obtained. Human rights activists should continue to disclose the failures of states to safeguard human rights and look for innovative ways to induce states to improve their chequered human rights record.
Clearly, the concept of trafficking and measures to address it will continue to evolve. It will be shaped to a significant degree by the actions of all involved, because precise actions often testify best to the values and discourses informing a certain phenomenon. In this way, a broad array of practitioners among the law enforcement officials, the judiciary, social workers and others providing services to trafficked persons ( importantly also those not granted the status of trafficked persons) and state bodies responsible for migration management - have an important role to play. Researchers and academics should continue to advance critical enquiry and analyse 'trafficking in human beings' as a subject of social struggle and politics.
Endnotes
The authors would like to thank the editors and Barbara Sidoti ( ARCnetwork), Klara Skrivankova ( Anti- Slavery International) and Daja Wenke ( independent consultant) for their valuable comments.
1. For example, the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings [CETS No.197], which came into force in February 2008, and its monitoring Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA); the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings and meetings of the OSCE Alliance against Trafficking in Persons.
2. Article 3 (a) of the Protocol, reads: ' Trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.' Article 3 (c) goes on to state:' The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered trafficking in persons even if this does not involve any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) of this article.'
3.
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