Endoplasmic Reticulum The enzymes of endoplasmic reticulum such as cytochrome p-450 and b5 enzymes and diamine oxidase contribute to the formation of ROS [68]. Another important thiol oxidase enzyme, Erop1p catalyses the transfer of electrons from dithiols to molecular oxygen results in the formation of H2O2 [69]. The other endogenous sources of ROS include prostaglandin synthesis, auto-oxidation of adrenalin, phagocytic cells, reduced riboflavin, FMNH2, FADH2, cytochrome P 450, immune cell activation, inflammation, mental stress, excessive exercise, infection, cancer, aging, ischemia etc. [68]. On the other hand, ROS are also produced in the biological systems by various exogenous sources shown in Table 3 [10]. Molecular targets of free radicals When there is an imbalance between the free radical production (ROS/RNS) and antioxidant defenses, the former will be produced in higher concentrations leading to oxidative stress and nitrosative stress. Since these free radicals are highly reactive, they can damage all the three important classes of biological molecules including nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids [70]. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Both ROS/RNS can oxidatively damage the nucleic acids. The mitochondrial DNA is more vulnerable to the ROS attack than the nuclear DNA, because it is located in close proximity to the ROS generated place. ROS, most importantly, the OH• radical directly reacts with all components of DNA such as purine and pyrimidine bases, deoxyribose sugar backbone [71] and causes a number of alternations including single and double stranded breaks in DNA. The OH• radical abstracts hydrogen atoms to produce a number of modified puine as well as pyrimidine base by-products and DNA- protein cross links. The pyrimidine attack by OH• produces different pyrimidine adducts like thymine glycol, uracil glycol, 5-hydroxydeoxy uridine, 5-hydroxy deoxycytidine, hydantoin and others. The purine adducts formed by hydroxyl radical attack include, 8-hydroxydeoxy guanosine, 8-hydroxy deoxy adenosine, 2,6-diamino-4-hydroxy-5-formamidopyrimidine. The other free radical induced adducts of DNA bases include, 5-formyl uracil, cytosine glycol, 5,6-dihydrothyronine, 5-hydroxy-6-hydro-cytosine, 5-hydroxy-6-hydro uracil, uracil glycol, and alloxan [72]. The major free radical induced adducts of the sugar moiety in DNA include glycolic acid, 2-deoxytetrodialdose, erythrose, 2-deoxypentonic acid lac- tone, 2-deoxypentose-4-ulose [72]. 8-hydroxy deoxyguanosine is considered as the biomarker of oxidative DNA damage and is involved in mutagenesis, carcinogenesis and ageing. The levels of 8-OHdG are higher in mitochondrial DNA than in nuclear DNA [73].
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