A renewed interest in metaphor was also evident in postmodern gardens. Landscape design became increasingly conceptual. Ideas of framing nature, using the landscape itself as a material, and making natural processes explicit were common themes explored by landscape designers. Michael Van Valkenburgh’s Krakow Ice Garden (1990) on Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, and Peter Walker’s Tanner Fountain (1984), at Harvard University, exemplified this trend. Conceptual projects included Martha Schwartz’s Splice Garden (1986) at the Whitehead Institute in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Ron Wigginton/Land Studio’s Wheat Walk (1988) proposed for Davis, California; and Charles Jencks and Maggie Keswick’s Garden of Cosmic Speculation (1990) at their home in Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Postmodernist designers employed allegory like 18th-century Whig landowners did. Ian Hamilton Finlay constructed a poet’s garden at his home in Lanarkshire, Scotland. He is known for his “concrete poetry”—words carved into stones and set into provocative pictorial compositions. His garden, Little Sparta, came to reflect his fascination with the French Revolution and his disappointment in contemporary society.18 At the end of the 20th century, international garden expositions and festivals resurfaced as popular cultural phenomena. The Chaumont Garden Festival in Chaumont-sur-Loire, France, initiated the trend in 1992, showcasing the work of renowned landscape designers as well as emerging talents. Annual festivals in England, Germany, Canada, and the Netherlands feature temporary, themed gardens, and help shape the public’s idea of what a garden can be.
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