Polymeric substrates
These substrates contain polysaccharides that, in most cases, cannot be directly assimilated by microorganisms, requiring an earlier stage of hydrolysis. The so-called starchy materials contain starch, a biopolymer of glucose units linkedvia a(1e4) bonds forming chains of variable length, branchedvia a(1e6) bonds or not. Two different polysaccharide fractions are present in
starch, namely the amylose that has a few branches and long linear chains and the amylopectin with opposite characteristics. Preparation of glucose solutions from starchymaterials requires submitting the material to preliminary liquefaction by thermostable a-amylase and subsequent
saccharification by a-amylase and amyloglucosidase, which prevents starch gelatinization (Massoud & Elrazek, 2011; Palmarola-Adrados, Juhasz, Galbe, & Zacchi, 2004). The resulting glucose solutions can be used directly as carbon source to produce lactic acid. These materials can also be fermented by some microorganisms directly without any preliminary hydrolysis stage because of their ability to release extracellular amylases.
On the other hand, lignocellulosic biomass represents the most abundant global source of biomass, and for this reason it has been largely utilized in many applications. It
is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which form approximately 90% of the dry matter (Taherzadeh & Karimi, 2008). Lignocellulosic materials can be used to obtain sugar solutions that may be usefully exploited for the production of lactic acid through the following steps: a) pretreatment to break down the lignocellulosic structure, b) enzymatic hydrolysis to depolymerize lignocellulose to fermentative sugars, c) sugar fermentation to lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria and d) separation and purification of lactic acid (Abdel-Rahmanet al., 2011; Bustos, Moldes, Cruz, & Domınguez, 2005a; Chang, Lu, Yang, Zhao, & Zhang, 2010; Moldes, Alonso, & Parajo, 2001b; Parajo, Alonso, & Moldes, 1997; Ya~nez, Alonso, & Parajo, 2004). In recent years, one of the most used processes to obtain lactic acid from lignocellulosic materials is the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (Cui,
Li, & Wan, 2011; Nakano,Ugwu, & Tokiwa, 2012; Ou, Ingram, & Shanmugam, 2011), which is able to prevent enzyme inhibition by the product (Romanı, Ya~nez, Garrote, & Alonso, 2008).
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