Hogwood and Gunn (1984), acknowledging that many so-called ‘implementation failures’ can be traced to inadequate policies, citicizeh ‘bottom-uppers’ for taking an oppositional stance to elected officials and for refraining from giving any advice to them. They do not see why the view from the top is necessarily less valid than that from other levels, and argue that the implications of a bottom-up view become less attractive when specific examples are examined. For instance, ‘if a Home Secretary is committed to better relations between policemen and black youths, should we view with equanimity the persistence of “street-level” police attitudes and action which are openly racist?’ Or, ‘if Parliament decided to move from left-hand to right-hand drive on our roads, would we be happy to leave to “negotiation” between road-users, local authorities, and the central government such questions as when, how, and whether the change-over should take effect?’ (Hogwood and Gunn, 1984: 208).
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