Prepared by the NCTE ELL Task Force

Prepared by the NCTE ELL Task Force
Approved by the NCTE Executive Committee, April 2006
This position paper is designed to address the knowledge and skills mainstream teachers need to have in order to develop effective curricula that engage English language learners, develop their academic skills, and help them negotiate their identities as bilingual learners. More specifically, this paper addresses the language and literacy needs of these learners as they participate and learn in English-medium classes. NCTE has made clear bilingual students’ right to maintain their native languages (see “On Affirming the CCCC ‘Students' Right to Their Own Language'" 2003). Thus, this paper addresses ways teachers can help these students develop English as well as ways they can support their students’ bilingualism. In the United States bilingual learners, more commonly referred to as English language learners, are defined as students who know a language other than English and are learning English. Students’ abilities range from being non-English speakers to being fully proficient. The recommendations in this paper apply to all of them.
Context
The National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA) reported that in 2003-04 there were over five million English language learners (ELLs) in schools in the United States (NCELA, 2004). In the last ten years the ELL population has grown 65%, and the diversity of those students continues to challenge teachers and schools. Although 82% of ELLs in the United States are native Spanish speakers, Hopstock and Stephenson (2003) found that school districts identified over 350 different first languages for their second language learners.
Federal, state, and local policies have addressed the education of bilingual learners by implementing different types of programs. Different models of bilingual education, English as a Second Language, English immersion, and integration into mainstream classes, sometimes referred to as submersion, are among the most common approaches. Preferences for the types of programs have changed over time, responding to demographic and political pressures. (For a historical and descriptive summary, see NCTE’s “Position Statement on Issues in ESL and Bilingual Education”; Brisk, 2006; Crawford, 2004.)
The best way to educate bilingual learners has been at the center of much controversy. Research points to the advantage of quality bilingual programs (Greene, 1997; Ramirez, 1992; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005; Thomas & Collier, 2002; Willig, 1985) and the benefits of ESL instruction when language is taught through content (Freeman, Y. S., & Freeman, D. E., 1998; Marcia, 2000).
For a variety of reasons, however, the majority of ELLs find themselves in mainstream classrooms taught by teachers with little or no formal professional development in teaching such students (Barron & Menken, 2002; Kindler, 2002). Although improving the education of ELLs has been proposed as a pressing national educational priority (Waxman & Téllez, 2002), many teachers are not adequately prepared to work with a linguistically diverse student population (American Federation of Teachers, 2004; Fillmore & Snow, 2002; Gándara, Rumberger, Maxwell-Jolly, & Callahan, 2003; Menken & Antunez, 2001; Nieto, 2003).
Teachers working to better meet the needs of linguistically diverse students need support. NCTE encourages English teachers to collaborate and work closely with ESL and bilingual teaching professionals, who can offer classroom support, instructional advice, and general insights into second language acquisition. School administrators should support and encourage teachers to attend workshops and professional conferences that regularly offer sessions on bilingual learners, particularly in the areas of reading and writing. Schools should also consider seeking professional development for their teachers from neighboring colleges.
In turn, colleges and universities providing teacher education should offer all preservice teachers, as well as teachers pursuing advanced degree work, preparation in teaching linguistically diverse learners in their future classrooms. Coursework should be offered on second language writing and reading, and on second language acquisition, as well as on culture, and should be encouraged for all teachers.
Who Are the Students?
Bilingual students differ in various ways, including level of oral English proficiency, literacy ability in both the heritage language and English, and cultural backgrounds. English language learners born in the United States often develop conversational language abilities in English but lack academic language proficiency. Newcomers, on the other hand, need to develop both conversational and academic English. Education previous to entering U.S. schools helps determine students’ literacy levels in their native language. Some learners may have age-/grade-level skills, while others have limited or no literacy because of the quality of previous schooling, interrupted schooling due to wars or migration, and other circumstances (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Given the wide range of English language learners and their backgrounds, it is important that all teachers take the time to learn about their students, particularly in terms of their literacy histories.
Immigrant students and the children of immigrants in the United States come from many cultural backgrounds. The background knowledge English learners bring to school greatly affects their performance. For this reason, teachers of English language learners should be sure to build background for content lessons rather than assuming that bilingual students come with the same background knowledge as mainstream students.
Teaching Bilingual Learners in Mainstream Classrooms
This section specifically addresses teaching language, reading, and writing, as well as the specific kinds of academic literacy that are often a part of most English and language arts curricula. Although English language arts teachers have literacy as the focus of their teaching, many of these suggestions are useful for teachers working in the content areas as well. To acquire academic content through English, English language learners need to learn English. The academic language that students need in the different content areas differs, and students need scaffolding to help them to learn both the English language and the necessary content. For English language learners, teachers need to consider content objectives as well as English language development objectives.
Bilinguals need three types of knowledge to become literate in a second language. They need to know the second language; they need to know literacy; and they need world knowledge (Bernhardt, 1991). The sections below list key ideas for helping English language learners develop academic English proficiency. More detailed information on the topics covered in this section can be obtained from the topical bibliography compiled as part of this project.
To teach bilingual learners, teachers must get to know their learners.
Knowledge of the Students
Knowledge of the students is key to good teaching. Because teachers relate to students both as learners and as children or adolescents, teachers must establish how they will address these two types of relationships, what they need to know about their students, and how they will acquire this knowledge. The teacher-learner relationship implies involvement between teachers and students around subject matter and language and literacy proficiency in both languages. Adult-child relationships are more personal and should include the family. Focusing on both types of relationships bridges the gap between school and the world outside it, a gap that is especially important for many bilingual students whose world differs greatly from school.
Teaching Language
Second language learners need to develop academic proficiency in English to master content-area subjects. Teachers can provide effective instruction for these students by:
• Recognizing that second language acquisition is a gradual developmental process and is built on students’ knowledge and skill in their native language;
• Providing authentic opportunities to use language in a nonthreatening environment;
• Teaching key vocabulary connected with the topic of the lesson;
• Teaching academic oral language in the context of various content areas;
• Teaching text- and sentence-level grammar in context to help students understand the structure and style of the English language;
• Teaching the specific features of language students need to communicate in social as well as academic contexts.
Teaching Literacy: Reading
Bilingual students also need to learn to read and write effectively in order to succeed in school.
Teachers can support English language learners’ literacy development by:
• Introducing classroom reading materials that are culturally relevant;
• Connecting the readings with the students' background knowledge and experiences;
• Encouraging students to discuss the readings, including the cultural dimensions of the text;
• Having students read a more accessible text on the topic before reading the assigned text;
• Asking families to read with students a version in the heritage language;
• Replacing discrete skill exercises and drills with many opportunities to read;
• Providing opportunities for silent reading in either the students’ first language or in English;
• Reading aloud frequently to allow students to become familiar with and appreciate the sounds and structures of written language;
• Reading aloud while students have access to the text to facilitate connecting oral and written modalities;
• Stimulating students’ content knowledge of the text before introducing the text;
• Teaching language features, such as text structure, vocabulary, and text- and sentence-level grammar to facilitate comprehension

Kết quả (Việt) 1:

Prepared by the NCTE ELL Task ForceApproved by the NCTE Executive Committee, April 2006 This position paper is designed to address the knowledge and skills mainstream teachers need to have in order to develop effective curricula that engage English language learners, develop their academic skills, and help them negotiate their identities as bilingual learners. More specifically, this paper addresses the language and literacy needs of these learners as they participate and learn in English-medium classes. NCTE has made clear bilingual students’ right to maintain their native languages (see “On Affirming the CCCC ‘Students' Right to Their Own Language'" 2003). Thus, this paper addresses ways teachers can help these students develop English as well as ways they can support their students’ bilingualism. In the United States bilingual learners, more commonly referred to as English language learners, are defined as students who know a language other than English and are learning English. Students’ abilities range from being non-English speakers to being fully proficient. The recommendations in this paper apply to all of them. ContextQuốc gia Clearinghouse cho việc mua lại ngôn ngữ tiếng Anh (NCELA) báo cáo rằng trong năm 2003-04 có là hơn 5 triệu người học Anh ngữ (Sân bay ELLs) trong các trường học ở Hoa Kỳ (NCELA, 2004). Trong mười năm qua ELL dân đã tăng 65%, và sự đa dạng của những học sinh tiếp tục thách thức giáo viên và trường học. Mặc dù 82% của sân bay ELLs tại Hoa Kỳ là người bản ngữ tiếng Tây Ban Nha, Hopstock và Stephenson (2003) tìm thấy rằng khu học chánh xác định hơn 350 ngôn ngữ khác nhau đầu tiên cho những người học ngôn ngữ thứ hai của họ. Chính sách liên bang, tiểu bang và địa phương đã đề cập giáo dục song ngữ học bằng cách thực hiện các loại khác nhau của chương trình. Các mô hình khác nhau của giáo dục song ngữ, tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ thứ hai, Anh ngâm và hội nhập vào các lớp học chính thống, đôi khi được gọi là submersion, là một trong những phương pháp tiếp cận phổ biến nhất. Tuỳ chọn cho các loại chương trình đã thay đổi theo thời gian, đáp ứng với áp lực chính trị và nhân khẩu học. (Cho một bản tóm tắt lịch sử và mô tả, xem NCTE của "vị trí tuyên bố trên các vấn đề trong ESL và song ngữ giáo dục"; Brisk, 2006; Crawford, 2004.) Cách tốt nhất để giáo dục song ngữ học viên đã ở trung tâm của nhiều tranh cãi. Nghiên cứu chỉ cho lợi ích của chất lượng chương trình song ngữ (Greene, 1997; Ramirez, 1992; Rolstad, Mahoney & thủy tinh, 2005; Thomas & Collier, 2002; Willig, 1985) và lợi ích của giảng dạy ESL khi ngôn ngữ được dạy thông qua nội dung (Freeman, Y. S., & Freeman, D. E., 1998; Marcia, 2000). For a variety of reasons, however, the majority of ELLs find themselves in mainstream classrooms taught by teachers with little or no formal professional development in teaching such students (Barron & Menken, 2002; Kindler, 2002). Although improving the education of ELLs has been proposed as a pressing national educational priority (Waxman & Téllez, 2002), many teachers are not adequately prepared to work with a linguistically diverse student population (American Federation of Teachers, 2004; Fillmore & Snow, 2002; Gándara, Rumberger, Maxwell-Jolly, & Callahan, 2003; Menken & Antunez, 2001; Nieto, 2003). Teachers working to better meet the needs of linguistically diverse students need support. NCTE encourages English teachers to collaborate and work closely with ESL and bilingual teaching professionals, who can offer classroom support, instructional advice, and general insights into second language acquisition. School administrators should support and encourage teachers to attend workshops and professional conferences that regularly offer sessions on bilingual learners, particularly in the areas of reading and writing. Schools should also consider seeking professional development for their teachers from neighboring colleges. In turn, colleges and universities providing teacher education should offer all preservice teachers, as well as teachers pursuing advanced degree work, preparation in teaching linguistically diverse learners in their future classrooms. Coursework should be offered on second language writing and reading, and on second language acquisition, as well as on culture, and should be encouraged for all teachers. Who Are the Students?Bilingual students differ in various ways, including level of oral English proficiency, literacy ability in both the heritage language and English, and cultural backgrounds. English language learners born in the United States often develop conversational language abilities in English but lack academic language proficiency. Newcomers, on the other hand, need to develop both conversational and academic English. Education previous to entering U.S. schools helps determine students’ literacy levels in their native language. Some learners may have age-/grade-level skills, while others have limited or no literacy because of the quality of previous schooling, interrupted schooling due to wars or migration, and other circumstances (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Given the wide range of English language learners and their backgrounds, it is important that all teachers take the time to learn about their students, particularly in terms of their literacy histories. Immigrant students and the children of immigrants in the United States come from many cultural backgrounds. The background knowledge English learners bring to school greatly affects their performance. For this reason, teachers of English language learners should be sure to build background for content lessons rather than assuming that bilingual students come with the same background knowledge as mainstream students. Teaching Bilingual Learners in Mainstream ClassroomsThis section specifically addresses teaching language, reading, and writing, as well as the specific kinds of academic literacy that are often a part of most English and language arts curricula. Although English language arts teachers have literacy as the focus of their teaching, many of these suggestions are useful for teachers working in the content areas as well. To acquire academic content through English, English language learners need to learn English. The academic language that students need in the different content areas differs, and students need scaffolding to help them to learn both the English language and the necessary content. For English language learners, teachers need to consider content objectives as well as English language development objectives. Bilinguals need three types of knowledge to become literate in a second language. They need to know the second language; they need to know literacy; and they need world knowledge (Bernhardt, 1991). The sections below list key ideas for helping English language learners develop academic English proficiency. More detailed information on the topics covered in this section can be obtained from the topical bibliography compiled as part of this project. To teach bilingual learners, teachers must get to know their learners. Knowledge of the StudentsKnowledge of the students is key to good teaching. Because teachers relate to students both as learners and as children or adolescents, teachers must establish how they will address these two types of relationships, what they need to know about their students, and how they will acquire this knowledge. The teacher-learner relationship implies involvement between teachers and students around subject matter and language and literacy proficiency in both languages. Adult-child relationships are more personal and should include the family. Focusing on both types of relationships bridges the gap between school and the world outside it, a gap that is especially important for many bilingual students whose world differs greatly from school. Teaching Language Second language learners need to develop academic proficiency in English to master content-area subjects. Teachers can provide effective instruction for these students by: • Recognizing that second language acquisition is a gradual developmental process and is built on students’ knowledge and skill in their native language; • Providing authentic opportunities to use language in a nonthreatening environment; • Teaching key vocabulary connected with the topic of the lesson; • Teaching academic oral language in the context of various content areas; • Teaching text- and sentence-level grammar in context to help students understand the structure and style of the English language; • Teaching the specific features of language students need to communicate in social as well as academic contexts. Teaching Literacy: ReadingBilingual students also need to learn to read and write effectively in order to succeed in school. Teachers can support English language learners’ literacy development by: • Introducing classroom reading materials that are culturally relevant; • Connecting the readings with the students' background knowledge and experiences; • Encouraging students to discuss the readings, including the cultural dimensions of the text; • Having students read a more accessible text on the topic before reading the assigned text; • Asking families to read with students a version in the heritage language; • Replacing discrete skill exercises and drills with many opportunities to read; • Providing opportunities for silent reading in either the students’ first language or in English; • Reading aloud frequently to allow students to become familiar with and appreciate the sounds and structures of written language; • Reading aloud while students have access to the text to facilitate connecting oral and written modalities; • Stimulating students’ content knowledge of the text before introducing the text; • Teaching language features, such as text structure, vocabulary, and text- and sentence-level grammar to facilitate comprehension