ROS and DNA-damage responseAtaxia–telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and Ataxia–telangiectasiaand Rad3-related (ATR) are PI3K-like serine/threonine protein ki-nases activated under genotoxic stress conditions and phosphorylatevarious proteins involved in cell proliferation, cell death and survival,and DNA repair [140,141]. These two signaling proteins were initiallythought to be activated by a particular type of DNA damage thereforeserving in parallel signaling pathways; however, accumulating evi-dence suggests that the ATM- and ATR-pathways communicate andcooperate in response to DNA damage [141]. ATM, preferentially acti-vated by DNA double strand breaks, has been shown to serve as a sen-sor of oxidative stress in which ATM-deficient cells were moresusceptible to oxidative stress-inducing agents as well as DNA dam-aging agents [142]. However, it has recently been demonstratedthat the molecular mechanisms of the activation of ATM by DNA dam-age and oxidative stress are different. Upon double strand DNA breakinduction by agents such as bleomycin, cells recruit the Mre11–Rad50–Nbs1 (MRN) complex to damaged sites together with ATM,which in turn triggers autophosphorylation of ATM at Ser-1981 andactivates ATM protein kinase activity leading to phosphorylation ofdownstream signaling proteins such as checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2) atThr-68 and p53 at Ser-15 (Fig. 8). Phosphorylation of ATM at Ser-1981
and its kinase activity are reversibly regulated by protein phosphatase
2A (PP2A)[143]. Cells exposed to H2O2 also feature ATM activated via
Ser-1981 phosphorylation [144–146], although Guo et al. showed that
H2O2 activates ATM in an MRN/Ser-1981 autophosphorylation-
independent manner (Fig. 8) based on their results that 1) ATM was ac-
tivated by H2O2 equivalently in both wild type and mutant Mre11 cells,
and 2) H2O2 activated both wild type and Ser-1981 to alanine mutant
purified dimeric ATM in vitro [144]. Noncovalently associated dimeric
(non-active) ATM is known to be dissociated into active monomers in
response to DNA damage; however, Guo et al. showed that purified
ATM protein incubated with H2O2 in vitro migrated slower in SDS-
PAGE due to formation of covalent dimers that were sensitive to reduc-
ing agents, and given the fact that N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) blocked ATM
activation induced by H2O2 in vitro [144], these results suggest that
H2O2 activates ATM through formation of active ATM dimers via inter-
molecular disulfide bond(s). Further characterization demonstrated
that Cys-2991, located near the kinase domain of human ATM, is pri-
marily involved in the disulfide bond formation and oxidative activation
đang được dịch, vui lòng đợi..
