has been used extensively to evalua

has been used extensively to evaluate environmental benefits at European scale
from combined reductions of national emissions. Its results form the basis of
a number of internationally agreed and ratified UNECE-LRTAP protocols on
acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone. RAINS is now also frequently
used by the European Commission in environmental policy-making
(Amann et al., 1999; Tuinstra et al, 1999). There also exists a RAINS-Asia, which
covers acidification from sulfur dioxide emissions (Downing et al, 1997).
Another example of a model in this category is the Asia-Pacific Integrated
Model (AIM) for climate policy assessment. The models calculate global warming
and subsequent climate change impacts from greenhouse gases related to
economic activities such as food and energy production (Kainuma et al, 2003).
MSWM represents in both RAINS and AIMS an economic activity for which
related emissions and subsequent impacts are modeled. Landfilled waste may
result in emissions of methane (high global warming potential). Incineration
of waste may lead to several emissions impacting human health and the environment,
but at the same time avoids similar emissions (e.g. carbon dioxide,
sulfur and nitrogen dioxide etc.). The avoidance is due to the power and heat
co-generation in waste makes that replaces conventional electricity production.
Local Risk Assessment: Exposure assessment from a single source to its local
environment, i.e. in local RA, typically has a high level of site-specificity.
Local dispersion models are used to estimate exposure levels on a high level
of spatial resolution from the emission of chemicals to air, water or soil.
Gaussian plume models, for example, are typically used for calculating atmospheric
dispersion and concentrations. These concentrations are then used in
combination with dose-response relationships or no-effect-levels to evaluate
if there is risk for residents living relatively close to the source (up to a radius
of at most 50 km).
There is only scarce information about RA for solid waste management
in Asia. Likely contributors to this lack of information are insufficient solid
waste management regulations and enforcement as well as low public awareness
in developing countries. An example of local RA was reported by Nema
(undated) for the Okhla landfill in the southern part of New Delhi, India.
For this particular RA, the ICST3 dispersion model was used to estimate the
ground level air concentration of some carcinogenic compounds emitted from
the landfill. Although it is almost impossible to give a complete overview of all
modeling tools used for RA, a number of models have been used in Asia. Tools
were used particularly to model emissions from the power and transportation
sectors. Table 18.2 gives a snapshot of such models.
18.2.4