Particles. Silica Ludox TM-50, HS-40 and SM-30 water solutions with, respect- ively, concentrations of 52wt%, 40wt% and 30wt% at pH 9, pH9.5 and pH10, SiO2/Na2O ratios of 200–250, 89–101 and 45–56, and radii of about 15nm, 9nm and5nm,werepurchasedfromAldrichandusedasreceived.SilicaparticlesAL-30 withradiusabout50nmweresynthesizedusingthemethodofref.27anddissolved in water at 30wt% (pH58.5). Multi-wall carbon nanotubes were supplied by Arkema(Graphistrength C100) and purified with sulphuric acid. Thymine-grafted carbon nanotube particles (CNT-Thy) were synthesized using the method of ref. 28. Microgranular cellulose (cotton) was purchased from Aldrich. Cellulose nano- crystals CNC1 bearing sulphate and hydroxyl groups were prepared using the method of ref. 29. Cellulose nanocrystals CNC2 were prepared using the same method, but replacing sulphuric with hydrochloric acid. The suspensions were dilutedtothedesiredconcentration(0.5wt%and3wt%forcarbonnanotubesand cellulose nanocrystals, respectively) were sonicated for 30min just before use. Gels and calf liver. PDMA gels were prepared following the method of ref. 15. N,N9-methylene bisacrylamide (MBA) was used as the crosslinker and the MBA/ dimethylacrylamide ratio was 0.1mol.%, 0.5mol.%, 1.0mol.% and 1.5mol.% for samplesS0.1,S0.5,S1.0andS1.5,respectively(ExtendedDataTable1).Potassium persulphate (KPS) and N,N,N9,N9-tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED) were used as redox initiators. At the preparation state, the gel matrix hydration was fixedat87.7wt%.Toavoidnetworkdefectsthatleadtoaweakself-adhesionofgels it is important to conduct the synthesis under nitrogen conditions. The PDMA/ silica nanocompositegelcontaining 21v/v% ofTM-50silicawaspreparedfollow- ing the method of ref. 15. Polyacrylamide hydrogels were prepared by in situ free radical polymerization of acrylamide using thermal dissociation of KPS as initiator, at 80uC. The MBA/ acrylamide ratio was 0.1mol.% for the A0.1 gel. The A0.1 gel hydration at pre- paration was fixed at 87.7wt%. Two aqueous solutions were prepared: KPS at 4.5wt% and MBA at 1.2wt%. The samples were prepared by first dissolving MBA and acrylamide at 25uC in water. The KPS solution was then added and the homogeneous solution was purged with nitrogen for 15min under magnetic stirring. The mixture was finally transferred, under a nitrogen atmosphere, into laboratory-made moulds previously sealed and put under a nitrogen atmosphere. The sealed moulds were placed in an oven at 80uC for 24h. Gelatine (Technical 1, VVR) gels were prepared by dissolving the gelatine powder in deionized water under stirring at 50uC for 2h. The gelatine concen- tration was 23wt.%. The mixture was then poured into moulds and left at room temperaturefor30min.Mouldswerestoredat6uCfortwodaysbeforetestingand allowed to come to room temperature for 1h before testing. Swellingexperimentswereperformedindeionizedwaterandtheswollenweight ofthegelwasrecordedoverfourdaystoensurethatthegelwasatequilibrium.Gels ofintermediateswellingdegree(ExtendedDataFig.5a)wereobtainedbyimmers- ing as-synthesized gels in deionized water for some time (30min, 1h, 2h and 4h, respectively)followedbyare-equilibrationofsamplesover24h.Theamountofdry polymerwasestimatedfromtheamountofmonomer,assuming100%conversion. FreshcalfliverswerepurchasedfromM.Bonjean,rueMontagneSteGenevie `ve, Paris and used as received. Samples for tensile and lap-shear adhesion tests were cut with a scalpel to the desired dimensions. No pre-treatment or special drying was applied to samples or surfaces before the tensile and adhesion tests.Tensile tests. Tensile tests were performed on a tensile Instron machine (model 5565)equippedwitha10Nloadcellandwithavideoextensometer,whichfollows the local displacements of two spots. The experiments were performed at room temperatureat strain rate of0.06s21. For PDMAandpolyacrylamide,gel ribbons with dimensions of 40mm35mm32mm were used. For gelatine, to avoid systematic failure in the vicinity of the clamps, samples were cut using a dog- bone-shapeddiecutterfollowingtheISO4661-1standardwiththereducedsection of the samples having dimensions of of 25mm34mm32mm. For calf livers, tensiletestswereperformedonribbonswithdimensions45mm318mm33mm. TheelasticmoduliofthetwoliversshowninFig.4bwererespectively15.061.7kPa and 1261.5kPa. Adhesion tests. Lap-shear tests were performed on an Instron 5565 machine equipped with a 10N load cell at a speed of 150mmmin21. We used single lap- shear geometry (Extended Data Fig. 1a). Displacement was measured by a video extensometer that followed two markers (white dots), which were placed at a distance of 5mm from the edge of the lap joint unlessotherwise stated in the text. The total length of assembled ribbons was40mm. Unlessotherwise stated, gluing wasachievedbyspreadingananoparticlesolutiondropletofvolumeproportional to the overlap surface with a volume of 0.3mlper square millimetre. The contact pressure was 10kPa and contact time 30s. InFig. 2ctheoverlaplengthandwidthare20mmand10mm,respectively,and the ribbon thickness is h52mm. The data of Fig. 2d were obtained for ribbons withw55mmandh52mm.ThedataofFig.2ewereobtainedforlapjointswith overlap length of l55mm made of ribbons with w55mm and h52mm. The data of Extended Data Figs 1b, c, 4a and 5b were obtained for lap joints with overlap length of 10mm made of ribbons with w55mmandh52mm. Forthelap-sheartest,whenfailureoccurredbyinterfacialpeeling,weevaluated the adhesionenergyfromthemeasuredadhesivefailure forceF usingtheexpress- ionforshortlapjoints26,Gadh53(F/w)2/(2Eh),wherewandhdenote,respectively, thewidthandthicknessoftheribbon,andEisthetensilemodulus.ForPDMAS0.1 gels glued using TM-50 silica particles we found Gadh to be 6.661.6Jm22 and 6.261.4Jm22,respectively,forshortandnarrow(l52mm,w55mm,h52mm) and thick (l55mm, w52mm, h55mm) joints. For S0.5 and S1.0 gels (Fig. 2f) the lap-joint dimensions were l55mm, w55mm, h52mm. Self-repairtests.ThedataofFig.3cweremadeofPDMAS0.1ribbonsofw55mm and h52mm glued by spreading a 6ml droplet of HS-40 silica solution between them. The initial length of the assembly before the deformation is about 28mm. Theoverlaplengthwas5mm.Afteradhesiveinterfacialfailurebypeeling,thejoint was repaired by bringing ribbons back to contact and pressing with fingers for about 12s and the lap-shear test was performed again to test the strength of the repairedjunction.Similar testswere carriedoutongels gluedtogether usingother particles (for example, CNC1) and the ability to self-repair was always observed. Fracture tests. The fracture energy data of Fig. 2f were obtained using the single- edge notch geometry. A cut was made in the centre of the samples using a blade. Eachnotchwasmeasuredbyopticalmicroscopytodetermineitsexactlengtha,of approximately 1mm. The same procedure as the one used for tensile tests was performed: the strain rate wasfixed to be 0.06s21, and the force and the displace- ment data were recorded. The fracture energy was calculated using the following expression: Gc 56aW/(lc)1/2. HereW is the strain energy density, approximated bythesurfaceareaunderthe(engineering)stress–lcurve,wherelistheextension ratio, and lc denotes the extension ratio at the breaking point30.
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