. This review of interesting and still timely publications was compiled because many of theearly reports are not accessible by computerized literature search, and others are injournals not searched by pollination biologists. Thus, there have been many oversights and omissions. In spite of many published reports to the contrary, most peoplecontinue to simplistically credit the commonhoney bee (Apis mellifera L) with nearly allof the insect pollination in nature (for example, Barclay and Moffett, 1984) and agricultural crops (Anonymous, 1973; Cheung,1973; McGregor, 1976; Levin, 1983; Robinson et al, 1989; references in Southwickand Southwick, 1992).At issue is the logical valuation of publicly shared assets (bees), most species andpopulations belonging to nobody, yet benefiting all of us through pollination (in economics, a condition referred to as an ’externality’). Honey bees and certain stinglesshoney bees were brought into domestication or management long ago, but for thepurpose of their honey and wax productionrather than for any superior pollinating abilities. Pollination of crops was not a consideration at that time. Because they wereowned by beekeepers and thus already hadvalue in the economic system (in economicterms, were ’internalized’) and could bemanaged, honey bees began to be used aspollinators when populations of other bees (=pollen bees) and crop yields declined, due tonew adverse agronomic and environmentalimpacts. The challenge of bee and pollinationeconomics even launched J K Galbraith’sdistinguished career in economics (Voorhieset al, 1933). The honey bee is a good general pollinator, but not for all crops, under allconditions, just as the prolific freshwater carpis a good fish, but others may be more suitedto different environments such as the sea,tastier, or less bony. The pollination need issimilar to that in fisheries and aquaculture,where, as ’free’ wild fish populations decline,fish prices rise, and ever more species arebrought into domestication (aquaculture).Since the Roman empire, the common carphas been the world’s major cultured foodfish, but due to recently reduced populationsof wild fish there are now many more (in theWashington DC area, farm-raised fish nowpredominate in shops).The rational assessment and valuationof things that have been historically considered ’free’, such as clean air, adequatewater, fish, and pollinators, has become amajor concern in ecology, as scarcities ofsuch things increase (Meyer and Turner,1992; Vitousek, 1994). It seems to behuman nature to unwittingly use up ordestroy our resources, unless they can bespecifically identified as worth saving, foreconomic reasons, or as ultimately beneficial to human life. Economic rationales suchas, "what is it good for?" may be disguisedas environmental, religious and aestheticvalues in many cultures.
Thus, it is time to protect our native beneficial Apoidea through habitat conservation and sustainable agriculture, and to augment them with selected, managed pollinators that are best adapted to most efficiently
pollinate the flowers of our crops.
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