and calnexin, which are Ca2+ - binding proteins that are known to interact with the Ins(1,4,5)P3R. The Ca2+ - binding sites on calreticulin have affinities that are suffi - ciently low to enable them to regulate Ins(1,4,5)P3Rs through luminal Ca2+ levels.The InsP3R can also be modulated by other signalling pathways, including phosphorylation by Ca2+/CaM- dependent kinase II (CaMKII), cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), protein kinase C (PKC) and cAMP- dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A; PKA)2. For some of these kinases, the scaffolding proteins that medi- ate recruitment to their site of action on the Ins(1,4,5)P3R have been identified. Forexample, PKG is recruited by the Ins(1,4,5)P3R-associated cGMP kinase substrate (IRAG), which results in Ins(1,4,5)P3R phosphorylation and a decrease in receptor activity39. In B cells, the Ins(1,4,5)P R is phosphorylated by the tyrosine kinase Lyn, which results in increased activity. This phosphorylation event is facili- tated by the scaffolding protein Bank that links together Lyn, the Ins(1,4,5)P3R and the B-cell receptor40 . Similarly in neuronal cells Ins(1,4,5)P3Rs are tethered to mGluRs by the Homer protein, thereby linking the source of Ins(1,4,5)P3production to its site of action (BOX 2, part b). The protein phosphatases 1 and 2a (PP1 and PP2a) have been found to co-purify with PKA and the Ins(1,4,5)P3R, which is reminiscent of their interaction with the RYR41. This protein complex of phosphatase, kinase and substrate allows the rapid regulation of Ins(1,4,5)P3R activity by phosphorylation / dephosphorylation.RYRs are also controlled by several signalling path- ways, as illustrated by the RYR2 that is found in cardiac cells. Like the Ins(1,4,5)P3R, RYR2 responds to Ca2+ in a bell-shaped fashion (that is, RYR2 is inactive at low nM concentrations of Ca2+,active at low M concen- trations of Ca2+ and inactivated by high concentrations of Ca2+ that are in the mM range)42. In the cardiac myocyte, Ca2+ that enters through the L-type Ca2+ channel activates RYR2 to create the ‘spark’ that triggers con- traction (FIG. 3). This role of RYR2 in excitation–contrac- tion (E–C) coupling is a highly regulated process that involves many accessory factors that are bound to both its luminal and cytosolic domains (BOX 2, part a).Opening of RYR2 is inhibited by CaM, which is pre- sent in Ca2+-bound and non-bound forms, which are known as CaCaM and apoCaM, respectively43. Several accessory proteins contribute to the control of heart function by the sympathetic nervous system, throughthe FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE44. After -adrenergic stimula-tion, RYR2 is phosphorylated by PKA, which is attached through an A kinase anchoring protein (AKAP)45 (BOX 2, part a). Phosphorylation of RYR2 by PKA results in the dissociation of the 12.6-kDa FKBP12.6, which normally stabilizes the RYR in a closed conformation45. Furthermore, FKBP12.6 is required for the coupled gating between neighbouring receptors that coordinates the activation and inactivation of physically linked receptors during E–C coupling44. PKA also phosphory- lates sorcin, which is another regulator of RYR2 (REF. 46).The RYR2 macromolecular complex also includes the phosphatases PP1 and PP2a, which interact with RYR2 through the leucine/isoleucine-zipper-binding scaffolding proteins spinophilin and PR130, respectively (BOX 2, part a)44. The presence of these phosphatases in the same protein complex as the kinase and substrate ensure that there is a tight regulation of the phosphory- lation status of the receptor and, therefore, its activity. The membrane and luminal region of the RYR2 is pre- sent in a complex with three other proteins: junctin, tri- adin and calsequestrin (BOX 2, part a)47,48. Calsequestrin is the principal Ca2+-binding protein of muscle cells and is highly concentrated in the junctional region of the SR. In the lumen of the SR, calsequestrin does not bind directly to the RYR, but is anchored adjacent to the Ca2+-release site through junctin and triadin, which are both membrane-bound proteins (BOX 2, part a)48. Triadin and junctin interact with calsequestrin in a Ca2+-depen- dent manner48, and this interaction might account for the sensitivity of RYR2s to Ca2+ in the lumen23,26. Indeed, transgenic studies have shown that there is a significant role for calsequestrin, junctin and triadin in cardiac Ca2+ signalling and hypertrophy (see below).Emerging Ca2+ channels. AUTOSOMAL-DOMINANT POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE (ADPKD) has been linked to mutations in two membrane-spanning proteins, which are known as polycystin-1 (PC-1) and polycystin-2 (PC-2)49. PC-1 has a large extracellular domain and might function in transducing sensory information, such as shear stress during fluid flow49. PC-2 has been shown to function as an intracellular Ca2+-release channel50 and to form a non-selective cation channel when it is inserted into the plasma membrane51. PC-2 has homology with VOCs and TRP channels,
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