Britain has long tradition of research and innovation in science . Technology and engineering in universities , research institutes and industry . Its record of achievement is in many ways unsurpassed, from the contributions of Isaac Newton to physics and astronomy in the 17th century ( theory of gravitation and three laws of motion) to the work of Charles Darwin of evolution and inventions of Michael Faraday in the 19th century (the first electric motor, generator and transformer)Great medical advances include the development of immunization by Edward Jenner in the 18century and the founding of antiseptic surgery by Lord Lister in the 19th. This is record has been maintained throughout the 20th Century . There are few branches of sciences, engineering and technology in which Britain has not excelled. For example, fundamental contributions to modern molecular genetics were made through the discovery of the tree-dimensional molecular structure of the United States. Other notable contributions over the last 20 years have been made by Stephen Hawking in improving the understanding of nature and origin of the universe ; Brian Josephson in superconductivity (abnormally high electrical conductivity at low temperatures ) : Martin Ryle and Anthony Hewish in radio-astrophysics ; and Godfrey Hounsfield in computer-assisted tomography for medical diagnosis.Much pioneering work was done during the 1980s. For example, in 1985 British Antarctic Survey scientists discovered the hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctic, while Alec Jeffreys invented DNA fingerprinting, a forensic technique which can identify an individual from a small tissue sample. The first combined heart, lungs and liver transplant was carried out at Papworth Hospital, Cambridge, in 1986.More recently there have been several breakthroughs in genetics research, including the identification of the gene on the chromosome responsible for determining sex, and the identification of other genes linked to diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and the commonest form of inherited heart disease.A vaccine has been developed in Britain to protect against cancer associated with the Epstein-Barr virus. Gene therapy has begun on the treatment of cystic fibrosis. The world first pig with a genetically modified heart has been bred by scientists at Cambridge University, an important milestone breeding animals as organ donors for people.
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