Chapter 23 describes distinct natio

Chapter 23 describes distinct national styles in graphic
design that have emerged since the 1960s, examining
design from the United Kingdom, Asia, the Netherlands,
the Iberian Peninsula, the Americas, and the Middle
East. Each of these countries and regions has developed
a unique stance because of the strong approaches of
particular designers and studios. Due to developments
in graphic arts technology and the expansion of graphic
design education, their influence spread to other parts of
the world, resulting in an international culture that em-braced the fine arts, performing arts, and design. During
the 1980s and 1990s, advanced electronic and computer
technology created a cultural climate that impacted the
processes and appearance of graphic design.
Postwar graphic design in the United Kingdom, 483
In the United Kingdom, Herbert Spencer and the design
firm Pentagram are noted for their contributions to the
international dialogue in graphic design. Spencer helped
to renew graphic design after World War II through his
writings, teaching, and practice. As editor and designer
of the journal Typographica and author of Pioneers of
Modern Typography, Spencer informed the postwar gen-eration about the accomplishments of earlier twentieth-century designers.
This chapter’s discussion of the design partnership Pen-tagram focuses on the firm’s formative years. Pentagram
began in London in 1962 as Fletcher, Forbes, Gill and
became Crosby, Fletcher, Forbes in 1965 after Gill left
and architect Theo Crosby became a partner. As addi-tional partners joined the firm, the name was changed to
Pentagram. By 1996, however, Pentagram had expanded
to seventeen partners, well beyond the number of
partners implied by its name, and had broadened its
international presence to include 148 employees in
London, Hong Kong, and in the American cities of New
York, San Francisco, and Austin, Texas. The essence to
the Pentagram approach to graphic design, especially
in the early years, can be summarized by its thorough
evaluation and understanding of the communications
problem and the context in which the solution would ap-pear, combined with British humor, and a willingness to
experiment. Pentagram’s design solutions ranged from
geometric forms for corporate identity, such as the mark
for the 1966 Zinc Development Association Die Casting