Kết luận và quan điểm trong tương laiRecent progress in techniques for the genetic modification of pigs facilitates the generation of tailored models for translational research. For the development of advanced preclinical animal models, target genes and mechanisms for the development of novel therapies are revealed by genome-wide association studies and pathophysiological investigations of human patient cohorts. In addition, forward and reverse genetics approaches in model organisms as well as cellular systems may contribute to the target discovery pipeline. Mouse models can be precisely designed or obtained from the large archive of mutants. Based on the findings in mouse models, large animal models such as genetically modified pigs can be designed for selected human diseases (Fig. 4). Further refinements of transgenic technology in pigs can be expected in the near future. These include inducible transgene expression [60], the Cre/loxP system for conditional transgenic modifications [61] and nonviral episomal expression systems that replicate autonomously in mammalian cells [62]. Zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) technology which facilitates sequence-specific double-strand breaks of DNA, has recently been successfully used in the rat [63], and will, in the very near future, also be used to mutate specific genes in other mammalian species including pigs. This approach does not even require the technically demanding SCNT, but should work via cytoplasmic injection of DNA or RNA coding for the respective ZFN into zygotes. While repair of double-strand breaks by nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) frequently leads to mutations, ZFN technology is also expected to increase the rate of homologous recombination (HR) if a targeting vector is simultaneously introduced. Recently, attempts have been made to favor HR vs. NHEJ by transient downregulation of integral NHEJ proteins [64]. Furthermore, rAAV has been successfully used for efficient gene targeting in mammalian cells [65]. The refinement of techniques for the generation of tailored transgenic pigs is expected to widen the spectrum of potential applications. In addition to the disease areas covered by this article, future applications of genetically modified pig models may include cancer research [66] and regenerative medicine. Gene targeting will allow recapitulating causative mutations of human tumors in pig models, which can be used to investigate the multi-step process of tumorigenesis and to develop novel strategies for early diagnosis and therapy. In addition, pig models may be particularly important for regenerative medicine, since the “Guidelines for the Clinical Translation of Stem Cells” developed by the International Society for Stem Cell Research (http://www.isscr.org) recommend investigators to develop preclinical cell therapy protocols in small animal models, as well as in large animal models. These studies may involve allotransplantation of porcine stem cells in pig models (e.g., [67]). Importantly, recent studies described the derivation of porcine-induced pluripotent stem cells [68– 70], and protocols for the derivation and differentiation of porcine mesenchymal stem cells are also available [71]. Transgenic pigs expressing marker genes, such as the green fluorescent protein, ubiquitously or in specific tissues or cell types [72] will be important to monitor the safety and efficacy of cell therapies. Alternatively, human stem cells or their derivatives may be tested in pig models, which would requireimmunosuppressionorthedevelopmentofgenetically immunodeficient pigs. The plethora of potential applications of pig models require infrastructures which are able to generate, archive, and distribute pig models in an international framework. Furthermore, platforms and protocols for systematic phenotyping are required to fully exploit the potential of pig models for translational research.
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