Hepatitis B and C. Patients with active hepatitis or cirrhosis are not considered for nonhepatic transplantation. Immunosuppression increases viral replication in organ transplant recipients with either hepatitis B or C.
Hepatitis B can recur as fulminant hepatic failure even in patients with no evidence of viral DNA replication before transplantation. In liver transplantation, the risk of recurrent hepatitis B virus infection can be reduced by the administration of hepatitis B immunoglobulin during and after transplantation. Experience with lamivudine therapy initiated before transplantation to lower viral load has shown decreased likelihood of recurrent hepatitis B virus.
Hepatitis C typically progresses slowly in nonhepatic transplants, and the effect of immunosuppression on mortality due to liver disease remains to be determined. Treatment protocols for hepatitis C in the nonhepatic transplant population are not yet established. Hepatitis C nearly always recurs in liver transplant recipients whose original disease was due to hepatitis C. Therapy for recurrent hepatitis C virus with a combination of ribavirin and interferon results in histopathologic improvement of disease, although dosage and duration of therapy remain controversial.
EBV plays a role in the development of PTLD. This life-threatening lymphoma is treated by withdrawal or reduction in immunosuppression and often aggressive chemotherapy. The role of newly discovered viral agents such as human herpesvirus (HHV)-6, HHV-7, HHV-8, and polyoma (BK and JC) virus after transplantation remains to be established. BK virus is known to cause interstitial nephritis resulting in renal allograft loss and occasionally ureteral stricture resulting in obstruction. As BK virus nephropathy results primarily from reactivation of latent BK in the transplanted organ, this is rarely seen in nonrenal transplant recipients.
Fungal and parasitic infections, such as Cryptococcus, Mucor, aspergillosis, and Candida species, result in increased mortality after transplantation and should be aggressively diagnosed and treated. The role of prophylaxis with oral fluconazole has not been established.
Renal disease. Chronic allograft dysfunction is the leading cause of allograft loss in renal transplant recipients. Calcineurin inhibitor (CsA or tacrolimus) nephrotoxicity or recurrent native disease may also develop in these patients. Chronic calcineurin inhibitor nephrotoxicity may also lead to chronic renal insufficiency and end-stage renal disease (ESRD), requiring dialysis or transplantation in recipients of lung, heart, liver, or pancreas transplants. The incidence of ESRD secondary to calcineurin inhibitor toxicity in recipients of solid organ transplants is at least 10%, and the incidence of significant chronic kidney disease approaches 50% (N Engl J Med 2003;349:931).
Malignancy occurs in transplant patients with an overall incidence that is three- to fourfold higher than that seen in the general population (age matched). Some cancers occur at the same rate, whereas other neoplasms have a much higher frequency than normal. Cancers with an increased risk of fivefold or greater compared to the general population are Kaposi sarcoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, skin, lip, vulvar, anal, and liver cancer, illustrating the oncogenic potential of associated viral infections (JAMA 2011;306:1891).
Skin and lip cancers are the most common malignancies (40% to 50%) seen in transplant recipients, with an incidence 10 to 250 times that of the general population. Risk factors include immunosuppression, ultraviolet radiation, and human papillomavirus infection. These cancers develop at a younger age, and they are more aggressive in transplant patients than in the general population. Using protective clothing and sunscreens and avoiding sun exposure are recommended. Examination of the skin is the principal screening test, and early diagnosis offers the best prognosis. The mTOR inhibitors may be better immunosuppressive choices in patients with recurrent skin cancer as long as no contraindications to use otherwise exist.
Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease accounts for one-fifth of all malignancies after transplantation, with an incidence of approximately 1%. This is 30- to 50-fold higher than in the general population, and the risk increases with the use of antilymphocyte therapy for induction or rejection. The majority of these neoplasms are large-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas of the B-cell type. Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease results from EBV-induced B-cell proliferation in the setting of chronic immunosuppression. The EBV-seronegative recipient of a seropositive organ is at greatest risk. The presentation is often atypical and should always be considered in the patient with new symptoms. Diagnosis requires a high index of suspicion followed by a tissue biopsy. Treatment includes reduction or withdrawal of immunosuppression and chemotherapy.
Special Considerations
Important drug interactions are always a concern given the polypharmacy associated with transplant patients. Before prescribing a new medication to a transplant recipient, always investigate drug interactions.
The combination of allopurinol and azathioprine should be avoided or used cautiously due to the risk of profound myelosuppression.
CsA and tacrolimus are metabolized by cytochrome P450 (3A4). Therefore, CsA and tacrolimus levels are decreased by drugs that induce cytochrome P450 activity, such as rifampin, isoniazid, barbiturates, phenytoin, and carbamazepine. Conversely, CsA and tacrolimus levels are increased by drugs that compete for cytochrome P450, such as verapamil, diltiazem, nicardipine, azole antifungals, erythromycin, and clarithromycin. Similar effects are seen with tacrolimus and sirolimus.
Tacrolimus and CsA should not be taken together because of the increased risk of severe nephrotoxicity.
Lower doses of MPA should be used when either tacrolimus or sirolimus is taken concurrently.
Concomitant administration of CsA and sirolimus may result in a twofold increase in sirolimus levels; to avoid this drug interaction, CsA and sirolimus should be dosed 4 hours apart.
AU: Should this be bulleted under Infections?
AU: Please spell out on first mention.
đang được dịch, vui lòng đợi..
