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1.0 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................1 2.0 Formulation of the Protection and Security Standard in Treaties ..........................................................2 3.0 Interpretations by Arbitral Tribunals of the Full Protection and Security Obligation ......................5 A Standard Limited to Physical Security ............................................................................................................................................6 The Consequences of Extending the Full Protection and Security Standard Beyond Physical Security .......................7 Is the Full Protection and Security Standard a Reflection of the Minimum Standard for the Treatment of Aliens in Customary International Law? ...............................................................................................................................................................9 What Standard of Liability Does the Full Protection and Security Standard Impose upon States? .............................10 4.0 Options for States .................................................................................................................................................11 5.0 References ..............................................................................................................................................................13
© 2011 The International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentBEST PRACTICES SERIES NOVEMBER 2011 The Full Protection and Security Standard Comes of Age: Yet another challenge for states in investment treaty arbitration? 1
1.0 Introduction The full protection and security standard has maintained a low profile in international investment law circles in comparison with its more controversial sibling, the fair and equitable treatment provision. This is despite the vast number of international investment treaties that contain the protection and security provision, often in the same clause as the fair and equitable treatment guarantee. In fact, in the early 1990s, Ibrahim Shihata, World Bank senior vice president and general counsel, and Antonio Parra, legal advisor with the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes, were reported as observing that there was “hardly any case law” on the full protection and security standard. However, the two predicted that “arbitrators in future cases will undoubtedly have the task of further elucidating this and other international law standards.” In view of the large number of recent cases involving this provision, in particular those that have interpreted the standard broadly to go beyond physical security, Shihata and Parra have been proven right. A review revealed that while there were only six leading awards relating to this standard from 1990 until 2004, there were 24 such awards between 2004 and 2009, and more are likely to emerge (Commission, 2009). At least 40 published investment treaty awards have considered the protection and security standard. The recent political storms in the Arab world, particularly in Libya and Egypt, will provide a fertile opportunity for more claims. These are good tidings for investors, who will herald the coming-of-age of the protection and security standard as it transforms into a swan from a humble duckling. On the other hand, it may be no fairy tale for states, but more akin to the creation of a Frankenstein requiring restraint. The stakes for developing states found liable for breach of treaty obligations are particularly high. The seemingly innocuous and obvious treaty promise to accord full protection and security to investments can impose an onerous level of liability on states with scarce resources. Investment treaties formulate the standard of full protection and security in a broad manner, and tribunals have taken this at face value, thus interpreting the obligation as imposing a duty upon states to prevent harm to the investment from the acts of government and non-government actors. The level of diligence required by states—that is, whether the standard is a strict liability1 standard or limited to the customary international standard for the treatment of aliens—has triggered much debate before investment treaty tribunals. Moreover, recent tribunals have extended this standard to accord all types of protection, including legal and physical security. For example, the tribunal in Biwater v. Tanzania (2008) stated that full protection and security “implies a State’s guarantee of stability in a secure environment, both physical, commercial and legal” (par. 729). This raises concerns for states that have limited resources to spend to ensure that investments receive international standards of protection and security. The relevance of a state’s development level in interpreting this standard has also been raised in recent cases. Tribunals have ruled upon these very issues in widely conflicting ways, making it difficult to understand precisely what this promise to provide protection can mean for developing states. It is also likely to cause concern for developed states, as they face the risks of terrorism and natural calamities. This paper traces the development of the protection and security provision as it emerges from anonymity into a potent tool for investor protection. I first identify the common formulations of this standard found in international investment treaties, then discuss the key arbitral rulings in relation to the standard. I conclude by identifying options for states in managing their exposure to liability under this standard.
1 Strict liability does not require the finding of intent, negligence or fault. Liability arises from the fact of the act or omission itself.
© 2011 The International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentBEST PRACTICES SERIES NOVEMBER 2011 The Full Protection and Security Standard Comes of Age: Yet another challenge for states in investment treaty arbitration? 2
2.0 Formulation of the Protection and Security Standard in Treaties The most common expression of this standard is in the form of “full protection and security.” However, different variants are also found, such as “constant protection and security,” “protection and security” or “physical protection and security.” The standard can be found in the blueprint for the typical European bilateral investment treaty (BIT) template, the Abs-Shawcross Convention (1960), as follows: Article I Each Party shall at all times ensure fair and equitable treatment to the property of the nationals of the other Parties. Such property shall be accorded the most constant protection and security within the territories shall not in any way be impaired by unreasonable or discriminatory measures. (pp. 115–118) This is echoed nearly 40 years later in Article 10 of the Energy Charter Treaty (1994), whose membership is largely European, in the following terms: 10(1) Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty, encourage and create stable, equitable, favourable and transparent conditions for Investors of other Contracting Parties to make Investments in its Area. Such conditions shall include a commitment to accord at all times to Investments of Investors of other Contracting Parties fair and equitable treatment. Such Investments shall also enjoy the most constant protection and security and no Contracting Party shall in any way impair by unreasonable or discriminatory measures their management, maintenance, use, enjoyment or disposal. In no case shall such Investments be accorded treatment less favourable than that required by international law, including treaty obligations. (Energy Charter Secretariat, 2004, p. 53) Although the “most constant protection and security” provision is found in a number of treaties, the typical language used is “full protection and security.” Article 2(2) of the United Kingdom–Vietnam BIT (UNCTAD, 2002) reflects the most common formulation of the standard: “Investments of nationals or companies of each Contracting Party shall at all times be accorded fair and equitable treatment and shall enjoy full protection and security in the territory of the other Contracting Party.” The importance of adjectives such as “constant” or “full” in defining the scope of this standard will be seen from the discussion below of arbitral rulings. However, whether couched as “most constant” or “full protection and security,” the obligation appears in the vast majority of BITs, without any reference to the standard to be applied in interpreting it. The lack of reference to a standard has led to a debate on whether the obligation should be interpreted as reflecting the minimum standard of treatment for aliens in customary international law, or whether it is in fact a higher, independent treaty standard. The investor-state arbitrations under Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, 1992) prompted the NAFTA parties to clarify what they had meant by full protection and security in their treaty. Article 1105(1) of NAFTA (1992) contained broad language providing that the parties “shall accord to investments of another Party treatment in accordance with international law, including fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security.” In 2001 the NAFTA Free Trade Commission issued an interpretive statement confirming that the concepts of fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security “do not require treatment in addition to or beyond that which is required by the customary international law minimum standard of aliens” (NAFTA Free Trade Commission, 2001). The U.S. and Canadian model BITs now expressly define the limits of the full protection and security standard.
© 2011 The International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentBEST PRACTICES SERIES NOVEMBER 2011 The Fu
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1.0 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................1 2.0 xây dựng bảo vệ và an ninh tiêu chuẩn trong Hiệp ước...2 3.0 giải thích của Toà án trọng tài của họ và bảo vệ và nghĩa vụ bảo mật...5 A Standard Limited to Physical Security ............................................................................................................................................6 những hậu quả của mở rộng đầy đủ bảo vệ và an ninh tiêu chuẩn vượt ra ngoài bảo mật vật lý...7 là bảo vệ đầy đủ và tiêu chuẩn bảo mật là một sự phản ánh của các tiêu chuẩn tối thiểu để điều trị người ngoài hành tinh trong luật pháp quốc tế phong tục? ...............................................................................................................................................................9 những gì tiêu chuẩn của trách nhiệm pháp lý nào bảo vệ đầy đủ và tiêu chuẩn bảo mật áp đặt sau khi kỳ? .............................10 4.0 Options for States .................................................................................................................................................11 5.0 References ..............................................................................................................................................................13© 2011 các quốc tế viện bền vững DevelopmentBEST thực hành loạt tháng 11 2011 đầy đủ bảo vệ và an ninh tiêu chuẩn đi kèm của tuổi: Tuy nhiên, một thách thức cho kỳ đầu tư Hiệp ước trọng tài? 11.0 introduction bảo vệ đầy đủ và tiêu chuẩn bảo mật đã duy trì một cấu hình thấp trong vòng tròn luật quốc tế đầu tư so với anh chị em hơn gây tranh cãi của nó, việc cung cấp điều trị công bằng và công bằng. Điều này là mặc dù số lớn các điều ước quốc tế đầu tư có chứa điều khoản bảo vệ và an ninh, thường xuyên trong các khoản tương tự như việc bảo đảm điều trị công bằng và. Trong thực tế, trong những năm 1990, Ibrahim Shihata, ngân hàng thế giới cấp cao vice president và tổng và Antonio Parra, các cố vấn pháp lý với Trung tâm quốc tế cho việc giải quyết tranh chấp đầu tư, đã được báo cáo như là quan sát rằng đã có "hầu như bất kỳ trường hợp pháp luật" về họ và bảo vệ và an ninh tiêu chuẩn. Tuy nhiên, hai dự đoán rằng "trọng tài trong trường hợp trong tương lai sẽ không nghi ngờ gì có nhiệm vụ tiếp tục elucidating này và các tiêu chuẩn luật pháp quốc tế." Theo quan điểm của nhiều trường hợp gần đây liên quan đến điều khoản này, đặc biệt những người đã giải thích các tiêu chuẩn rộng rãi để vượt qua bảo mật vật lý, Shihata và Parra đã được chứng minh đúng. Xem xét một tiết lộ rằng trong khi đã có chỉ có sáu hàng đầu giải thưởng liên quan đến tiêu chuẩn này từ năm 1990 đến năm 2004, đã có 24 các giải thưởng như vậy giữa năm 2004 và 2009, và nhiều hơn nữa có khả năng xuất hiện (Ủy ban năm 2009). Ít nhất 40 công bố đầu tư Hiệp ước giải thưởng đã coi việc bảo vệ và an ninh tiêu chuẩn. Các cơn bão chính trị tại trong thế giới ả Rập, đặc biệt là ở Libya và Ai Cập, sẽ cung cấp một cơ hội màu mỡ cho các đơn xin thêm. Đây là tidings tốt cho nhà đầu tư, người sẽ báo sắp tới-của-tuổi của việc bảo vệ và an ninh tiêu chuẩn như nó biến thành một con Thiên Nga từ một vịt con khiêm tốn. Mặt khác, nó có thể không có câu chuyện cổ tích kỳ, nhưng nhiều giống như việc tạo ra một Frankenstein yêu cầu hạn chế. Đội ngũ nghiên cứu để phát triển các kỳ tìm thấy trách nhiệm đối với các vi phạm nghĩa vụ Hiệp ước đặc biệt cao. Hiệp ước dường như vô thưởng vô phạt và rõ ràng hứa để phù hợp đầy đủ bảo vệ và an ninh để đầu tư có thể áp đặt một mức độ lựa chọn hợp lý trách nhiệm kỳ với nguồn lực khan hiếm. Hiệp ước đầu tư xây dựng các tiêu chuẩn của họ và bảo vệ và bảo mật một cách rộng, và Toà án đã lấy này tại mệnh giá, do đó giải thích nghĩa vụ như áp đặt một nhiệm vụ khi kỳ để ngăn chặn thiệt hại cho đầu tư từ các hành vi của chính phủ và phi chính phủ diễn viên. Mức độ siêng năng yêu cầu kỳ — có nghĩa là, cho dù các tiêu chuẩn là một liability1 nghiêm ngặt tiêu chuẩn hoặc hạn chế tiêu chuẩn quốc tế phong tục để điều trị người ngoài hành tinh-đã gây ra nhiều cuộc tranh luận trước khi đầu tư Hiệp ước Toà án. Hơn nữa, tại Toà án đã mở rộng này tiêu chuẩn để phù hợp tất cả các loại bảo vệ, bao gồm cả pháp lý và vật lý an ninh. Ví dụ, tòa án trong Biwater v. Tanzania (2008) nói rằng họ và bảo vệ và an ninh "ngụ ý một trạng thái bảo lãnh của sự ổn định trong một môi trường an toàn, cả về thể chất, thương mại và pháp lý" (par. 729). Điều này làm tăng mối quan tâm cho các tiểu bang có hạn chế nguồn lực để chi tiêu để đảm bảo rằng đầu tư nhận được các tiêu chuẩn quốc tế về bảo vệ và an ninh. Sự liên quan của một nhà nước phát triển cấp trong thông dịch tiêu chuẩn này cũng đã được nâng lên trong trường hợp gần đây. Toà án đã cai trị sau khi những vấn đề này rất trong cách rộng rãi xung đột, làm cho nó khó khăn để hiểu chính xác những gì này hứa hẹn để cung cấp bảo vệ có thể có nghĩa là để phát triển các tiểu bang. Nó cũng có khả năng gây ra mối quan tâm cho phát triển Quốc, khi họ đối mặt với rủi ro của khủng bố và thảm họa thiên nhiên. Bài báo này dấu vết sự phát triển của việc cung cấp bảo vệ và an ninh như nó nổi lên từ ẩn danh vào một công cụ mạnh để bảo vệ nhà đầu tư. Tôi lần đầu tiên xác định các công thức phổ biến của Hiệp ước đầu tư quốc tế tìm thấy trong tiêu chuẩn này, sau đó thảo luận về phán quyết trọng tài chính liên quan đến các tiêu chuẩn. Tôi kết luận bằng cách xác định tùy chọn cho các tiểu bang trong việc quản lý của họ tiếp xúc với trách nhiệm pháp lý theo tiêu chuẩn này.1 trách nhiệm pháp lý nghiêm ngặt không đòi hỏi việc tìm kiếm các mục đích, sơ suất hoặc lỗi. Trách nhiệm pháp lý phát sinh từ thực tế của các hành động hoặc thiếu sót chính nó.© 2011 các quốc tế viện bền vững DevelopmentBEST thực hành loạt tháng 11 2011 đầy đủ bảo vệ và an ninh tiêu chuẩn đi kèm của tuổi: Tuy nhiên, một thách thức cho kỳ đầu tư Hiệp ước trọng tài? 22.0 Formulation of the Protection and Security Standard in Treaties The most common expression of this standard is in the form of “full protection and security.” However, different variants are also found, such as “constant protection and security,” “protection and security” or “physical protection and security.” The standard can be found in the blueprint for the typical European bilateral investment treaty (BIT) template, the Abs-Shawcross Convention (1960), as follows: Article I Each Party shall at all times ensure fair and equitable treatment to the property of the nationals of the other Parties. Such property shall be accorded the most constant protection and security within the territories shall not in any way be impaired by unreasonable or discriminatory measures. (pp. 115–118) This is echoed nearly 40 years later in Article 10 of the Energy Charter Treaty (1994), whose membership is largely European, in the following terms: 10(1) Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty, encourage and create stable, equitable, favourable and transparent conditions for Investors of other Contracting Parties to make Investments in its Area. Such conditions shall include a commitment to accord at all times to Investments of Investors of other Contracting Parties fair and equitable treatment. Such Investments shall also enjoy the most constant protection and security and no Contracting Party shall in any way impair by unreasonable or discriminatory measures their management, maintenance, use, enjoyment or disposal. In no case shall such Investments be accorded treatment less favourable than that required by international law, including treaty obligations. (Energy Charter Secretariat, 2004, p. 53) Although the “most constant protection and security” provision is found in a number of treaties, the typical language used is “full protection and security.” Article 2(2) of the United Kingdom–Vietnam BIT (UNCTAD, 2002) reflects the most common formulation of the standard: “Investments of nationals or companies of each Contracting Party shall at all times be accorded fair and equitable treatment and shall enjoy full protection and security in the territory of the other Contracting Party.” The importance of adjectives such as “constant” or “full” in defining the scope of this standard will be seen from the discussion below of arbitral rulings. However, whether couched as “most constant” or “full protection and security,” the obligation appears in the vast majority of BITs, without any reference to the standard to be applied in interpreting it. The lack of reference to a standard has led to a debate on whether the obligation should be interpreted as reflecting the minimum standard of treatment for aliens in customary international law, or whether it is in fact a higher, independent treaty standard. The investor-state arbitrations under Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, 1992) prompted the NAFTA parties to clarify what they had meant by full protection and security in their treaty. Article 1105(1) of NAFTA (1992) contained broad language providing that the parties “shall accord to investments of another Party treatment in accordance with international law, including fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security.” In 2001 the NAFTA Free Trade Commission issued an interpretive statement confirming that the concepts of fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security “do not require treatment in addition to or beyond that which is required by the customary international law minimum standard of aliens” (NAFTA Free Trade Commission, 2001). The U.S. and Canadian model BITs now expressly define the limits of the full protection and security standard. © 2011 quốc tế viện loạt các thực hành bền vững DevelopmentBEST tháng mười một 2011 Fu
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1.0 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................1 2.0 Formulation of the Protection and Security Standard in Treaties ..........................................................2 3.0 Interpretations by Arbitral Tribunals of the Full Protection and Security Obligation ......................5 A Standard Limited to Physical Security ............................................................................................................................................6 The Consequences of Extending the Full Protection and Security Standard Beyond Physical Security .......................7 Is the Full Protection and Security Standard a Reflection of the Minimum Standard for the Treatment of Aliens in Customary International Law? ...............................................................................................................................................................9 What Standard of Liability Does the Full Protection and Security Standard Impose upon States? .............................10 4.0 Options for States .................................................................................................................................................11 5.0 References ..............................................................................................................................................................13
© 2011 The International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentBEST PRACTICES SERIES NOVEMBER 2011 The Full Protection and Security Standard Comes of Age: Yet another challenge for states in investment treaty arbitration? 1
1.0 Introduction The full protection and security standard has maintained a low profile in international investment law circles in comparison with its more controversial sibling, the fair and equitable treatment provision. This is despite the vast number of international investment treaties that contain the protection and security provision, often in the same clause as the fair and equitable treatment guarantee. In fact, in the early 1990s, Ibrahim Shihata, World Bank senior vice president and general counsel, and Antonio Parra, legal advisor with the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes, were reported as observing that there was “hardly any case law” on the full protection and security standard. However, the two predicted that “arbitrators in future cases will undoubtedly have the task of further elucidating this and other international law standards.” In view of the large number of recent cases involving this provision, in particular those that have interpreted the standard broadly to go beyond physical security, Shihata and Parra have been proven right. A review revealed that while there were only six leading awards relating to this standard from 1990 until 2004, there were 24 such awards between 2004 and 2009, and more are likely to emerge (Commission, 2009). At least 40 published investment treaty awards have considered the protection and security standard. The recent political storms in the Arab world, particularly in Libya and Egypt, will provide a fertile opportunity for more claims. These are good tidings for investors, who will herald the coming-of-age of the protection and security standard as it transforms into a swan from a humble duckling. On the other hand, it may be no fairy tale for states, but more akin to the creation of a Frankenstein requiring restraint. The stakes for developing states found liable for breach of treaty obligations are particularly high. The seemingly innocuous and obvious treaty promise to accord full protection and security to investments can impose an onerous level of liability on states with scarce resources. Investment treaties formulate the standard of full protection and security in a broad manner, and tribunals have taken this at face value, thus interpreting the obligation as imposing a duty upon states to prevent harm to the investment from the acts of government and non-government actors. The level of diligence required by states—that is, whether the standard is a strict liability1 standard or limited to the customary international standard for the treatment of aliens—has triggered much debate before investment treaty tribunals. Moreover, recent tribunals have extended this standard to accord all types of protection, including legal and physical security. For example, the tribunal in Biwater v. Tanzania (2008) stated that full protection and security “implies a State’s guarantee of stability in a secure environment, both physical, commercial and legal” (par. 729). This raises concerns for states that have limited resources to spend to ensure that investments receive international standards of protection and security. The relevance of a state’s development level in interpreting this standard has also been raised in recent cases. Tribunals have ruled upon these very issues in widely conflicting ways, making it difficult to understand precisely what this promise to provide protection can mean for developing states. It is also likely to cause concern for developed states, as they face the risks of terrorism and natural calamities. This paper traces the development of the protection and security provision as it emerges from anonymity into a potent tool for investor protection. I first identify the common formulations of this standard found in international investment treaties, then discuss the key arbitral rulings in relation to the standard. I conclude by identifying options for states in managing their exposure to liability under this standard.
1 Strict liability does not require the finding of intent, negligence or fault. Liability arises from the fact of the act or omission itself.
© 2011 The International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentBEST PRACTICES SERIES NOVEMBER 2011 The Full Protection and Security Standard Comes of Age: Yet another challenge for states in investment treaty arbitration? 2
2.0 Formulation of the Protection and Security Standard in Treaties The most common expression of this standard is in the form of “full protection and security.” However, different variants are also found, such as “constant protection and security,” “protection and security” or “physical protection and security.” The standard can be found in the blueprint for the typical European bilateral investment treaty (BIT) template, the Abs-Shawcross Convention (1960), as follows: Article I Each Party shall at all times ensure fair and equitable treatment to the property of the nationals of the other Parties. Such property shall be accorded the most constant protection and security within the territories shall not in any way be impaired by unreasonable or discriminatory measures. (pp. 115–118) This is echoed nearly 40 years later in Article 10 of the Energy Charter Treaty (1994), whose membership is largely European, in the following terms: 10(1) Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty, encourage and create stable, equitable, favourable and transparent conditions for Investors of other Contracting Parties to make Investments in its Area. Such conditions shall include a commitment to accord at all times to Investments of Investors of other Contracting Parties fair and equitable treatment. Such Investments shall also enjoy the most constant protection and security and no Contracting Party shall in any way impair by unreasonable or discriminatory measures their management, maintenance, use, enjoyment or disposal. In no case shall such Investments be accorded treatment less favourable than that required by international law, including treaty obligations. (Energy Charter Secretariat, 2004, p. 53) Although the “most constant protection and security” provision is found in a number of treaties, the typical language used is “full protection and security.” Article 2(2) of the United Kingdom–Vietnam BIT (UNCTAD, 2002) reflects the most common formulation of the standard: “Investments of nationals or companies of each Contracting Party shall at all times be accorded fair and equitable treatment and shall enjoy full protection and security in the territory of the other Contracting Party.” The importance of adjectives such as “constant” or “full” in defining the scope of this standard will be seen from the discussion below of arbitral rulings. However, whether couched as “most constant” or “full protection and security,” the obligation appears in the vast majority of BITs, without any reference to the standard to be applied in interpreting it. The lack of reference to a standard has led to a debate on whether the obligation should be interpreted as reflecting the minimum standard of treatment for aliens in customary international law, or whether it is in fact a higher, independent treaty standard. The investor-state arbitrations under Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, 1992) prompted the NAFTA parties to clarify what they had meant by full protection and security in their treaty. Article 1105(1) of NAFTA (1992) contained broad language providing that the parties “shall accord to investments of another Party treatment in accordance with international law, including fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security.” In 2001 the NAFTA Free Trade Commission issued an interpretive statement confirming that the concepts of fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security “do not require treatment in addition to or beyond that which is required by the customary international law minimum standard of aliens” (NAFTA Free Trade Commission, 2001). The U.S. and Canadian model BITs now expressly define the limits of the full protection and security standard.
© 2011 The International Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentBEST PRACTICES SERIES NOVEMBER 2011 The Fu
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