responsive element (ARE); oxidation of a b-zip transcriptional repressor of ARE, the human BTB and CNC homolog 1 (Bach1) at Cys-557 and -574 re- sults in cytoplasmic translocation of Bach1, both leading to activation of the ARE. NQO1 expression [61]. It has also been demonstrated that Ref-1 nuclear localization and transcriptional activation of the ARE in the human fer- ritin H gene were increased following t-BHQ or hemin treatment [63], suggesting the possibility of Nrf2 redox regulation by Ref-1. Another ex- ample of possible redox regulation of Nrf2 was shown when mutation of the Cys-119 residue located in the transactivation domain of Nrf2 evi- denced decreased binding to the NQO1 ARE [94]. Interestingly, the BTB and CNC homolog 1 (Bach1), a b-zip tran- scriptional repressor of the ARE [95], also features the Ref-1 associat- ed conserved cysteine (Cys-574) (Fig. 4B) that is subject to redox regulation [96]. In this study, the sulfhydryl oxidizing agent diamide reversed Bach1-repressed ARE enhancer activity via Cys-574 oxida- tion (probably Cys-557 as well) leading to cytoplasmic translocation of Bach1 (Fig. 5) [96]. Nuclear export of Bach1 during ARE- dependent transcriptional activation of the NQO1 gene after t-BHQ treatment is also facilitated through phosphorylation of the mouse Bach1 at Tyr-486 (Tyr-483 in the human Bach1) by an undetermined tyrosine kinase [97]. Collectively, these results suggest that at least two sequential redox events, 1) the oxidation or adduct formation of Keap 1 in the cytoplasm and subsequent release and nuclear trans- location of Nrf2, and 2) the redox regulation of Nrf2 and Bach1 in the nucleus, appear to be critical for maximum transcriptional activation of ARE-dependent antioxidant genes via the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Thus, through upstream redox regulators such as Ref-1, transcription factor and repressor activity is modulated indirectly through ROS, while the examples of Nrf2 and Bach1 demonstrate the direct regula- tion of transcription factors and repressors by ROS. Both direct and indirect control of transcriptional regulators illuminate the oxidative interface between ROS and ARE gene transcription.
5. Regulation of p66Shc, mitochondrial oxidative stress, and aging
ROS have been implicated in the process of aging. Given that the majority of endogenous ROS are generated in mitochondria [98], there has been much interest in the role that mitochondrial ROS may play in aging. Of note is the Shc adaptor protein family, encoded by the shcA locus in mammalian cells, consisting of the p66Shc,
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