Evicntials oí
Materials Science and Engineẹring
tm»ể 111«
Macro-Scale structure Engine Block = upto 1 meter
Performance Criteria
■ Power generated
■ Eữiciency
■ Durabỉiỉty
■ Cost
Microstructure
- Grains
= 1 — 10 milUmeters
Propertìes affected
• High cycle fatigue
• Ductilỉty
Synthesis and Processing
Nano-structure
- Precipitates = 3-100 nanometers
Properties ạffected
• Yield sữength
• Ultimate tensile sữength
• Low cycle fatigue
• Ductility
Perỉbrmance or Properties to Cost Ratío
Composition
Atomic-scale structure = 1-100 Angstroms
Properứes affected
■ Young’s modulus
■ Thermal Growtìi
A real-world example of important microstructural features at diữerent length-scales, resulting ữom the sophisticated synthesis and Processing used, and the properties ứiey inAuence. The atomic, nano, micro, and macro-scale structures of cast alưminum alloys (for engine blocks) in relation to the properties aổected and performance are shown. The materials Science and engineering (MSE) tetraheđron that represents this approach is shown in the upper right comer.
(Dlustrations Courtesy of John Allison and William Donlon, Ford Motor Company)
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Essentials
of Materials
Science and
Engineering
Second Edition
Donald R. Askeland
University of Missouri—Rolla, Emeritus
Pradeep P. Fulay
University of Pittsburgh
CENGAGE *** Learning"
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Essentials of Materials Science and Engineering, Second Edition
Donald R. Askeland and Pradeep P. Fulay
Director, Global Engineering Program:
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2008923452 ISBN-13: 978-0-495-24446-2 ISBN-10: 0-495-24446-5
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Printed in the United States of America 12 3 4 5 6 7 11 10 09 08
To Mary Sue and Tyler
— Donald R. Askeland
To Suyash, Aarohee, and Jyotsna
— Pradeep P. Fulay
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Contents
Preface xv Hbout the Huthors xix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering 1
Introduction 1
1- 1 What is Materials Science and Engineering? 2
1- 2 Classification of Materials 5
1- 3 Functional Classification of Materials 9
1- 4 Classification of Materials Based on Structure 11
1- 5 Environmental and Other Effects 12
1- 6 Materials Design and Selection 14
SUMMARY 17 ■ GLOSSARY 18 ■ PROBLEMS 19
Chapter 2 Atomic Structure 21
Introduction 21
2- 1 The Structure of Materials: Technological Relevance 22
2- 2 The Structure of the Atom 23
2- 3 The Electronic Structure of the Atom 28
2- 4 The Periodic Table 30
2- 5 Atomic Bonding 32
2- 6 Binding Energy and Interatomic Spacing 40
SUMMARY 44 ■ GLOSSARY 45 ■ PROBLEMS 48
Chapter 3 Atomic and Ionic Arrangements 51
Introduction 51 3-1 Short-Range Order versus Long-Range Order 52
3- 2 Amorphous Materials: Principles and Technological Applications 54
3- 3 Lattice, Unit Cells, Basis, and Crystal Structures 55
3- 4 Allotropic or Polymorphic Transformations 63
3- 5 Points, Directions, and Planes in the Unit Cell 64
3- 6 Interstitial Sites 74
3- 7 Crystal Structures of Ionic Materials 76
3- 8 Covalent Structures 79
3- 9 Diffraction Techniques for Crystal Structure Analysis 80
SUMMHRV 82 - GLOSSHRV 83 - PROBLEMS 86
Chapter 4 ímperfectỉons in the Htomic and ionic Hrrangements 90
Introduction 90
4- 1 Point Defects 91
4- 2 Other Point Defects 97
4- 3 Dislocations 98
4- 4 Significance of Dislocations 105
4- 5 Schmid's Law 105
4- 6 Influence of Crystal Structure 108
4- 7 Surface Defects 109
4- 8 Importance of Defects 114
SUMMHRV 116 - GLOSSHRV 117 - PROBLEMS 118
Chapter 5 Htom and íon Movements ỉn Materials 122
Introduction 122
5- 1 Applications of Diffusion 123
5- 2 Stability of Atoms and Ions 125
5- 3 Mechanisms for Diffusion 127
5- 4 Activation Energy for Diffusion 129
5- 5 Rate of Diffusion (Fick's First Law) 130
5- 6 Factors Affecting Diffusion 133
5- 7 Permeability of Polymers 141
5- 8 Composition Profile (Fick's Second Law) 142
5- 9 Diffusion and Materials Processing 146
SUMMHRV 147 - GLOSSHRV 148 - PROBLEMS 149
Chapter 6 Mechanỉcal Propertỉes: íundamentals and ĩensỉle, Hardness, and ímpact Testỉng 153
Introduction 153
6- 1 Technological Significance 154
6- 2 Terminology for Mechanical Properties 155
6- 3 The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress-Strain Diagram 159
6- 4 Properties Obtained from the Tensile Test 163
6- 5 True Stress and True Strain 169
6- 6 The Bend Test for Brittle Materials 171
6- 7 Hardness of Materials 174
6- 8 Strain Rate Effects and Impact Behavior 176
6- 9 Properties Obtained from the Impact Test 177
SUMMARY 180 - GLOSSARY 181 - PROBLEMS 183
Chapter 7 Fracture Mechanics, Fatigue, and Creep Behavior 187
Introduction 187 7-1 Fracture Mechanics 188
7- 2 The Importance of Fracture Mechanics 191
7- 3 Microstructural Features of Fracture in Metallic Materials 194
7- 4 Microstructural Features of Fracture in Ceramics, Glasses, and
Composites 198
7- 5 Weibull Statistics for Failure Strength Analysis 200
7- 6 Fatigue 206
7- 7 Results of the Fatigue Test 209
7- 8 Application of Fatigue Testing 212
7- 9 Creep, Stress Rupture, and Stress Corrosion 215
7- 10 Evaluation of Creep Behavior 217
SUMMARY 220 - GLOSSARY 220 - PROBLEMS 222
Chapter 8 Strain Hardening and Annealing 225
Introduction 225
8- 1 Relationship of Cold Working to the Stress-Strain Curve 226
8- 2 Strain-Hardening Mechanisms 231
8- 3 Properties versus Percent Cold Work 232
8- 4 Microstructure, Texture Strengthening, and Residual Stresses 235
8- 5 Characteristics of Cold Working 239
8- 6 The Three Stages of Annealing 241
8- 7 Control of Annealing 244
8- 8 Annealing and Materials Processing 246
8- 9 HotWorking 248
SUMMARY 250 - GLOSSARY 250 - PROBLEMS 252
Chapter 9 Principles and Applications of Solidification 257
Introduction 257 9-1 Technological Significance 258
9-2 Nucleation 259
9- 3 Growth Mechanisms 264
9- 4 Cooling Curves 269
9- 5 Cast Structure 271
9- 6 Solidification Defects 272
9- 7 Casting Processes for Manufacturing Components 274
9- 8 Continuous Casting, Ingot Casting, and Single Crystal Growth 276
9- 9 Solidification of Polymers and Inorganic Glasses 278
9- 10 Joining of Metallic Materials 279
9- 11 Bulk Metallic Glasses (BMG) 280
SUMMHRV 282 ■ GLOSSHRV 283 - PROBLEMS 286
Chapter 10 Solid Solutions and Phase Equilibrium 291
Introduction 291
10-1 Phases and the Phase Diagram 292
10-2 Solubility and Solid Solutions 296
10-3 Conditions for Unlimited Solid Solubility 299
10-4 Solid-Solution Strengthening 301
10-5 Isomorphous Phase Diagrams 303
10-6 Relationship Between Properties and the Phase Diagram 312
10-7 Solidification of a Solid-Solution Alloy 314
SUMMHRV 317 - GLOSSHRV 318 - PROBLEMS 319
Chapter 11 Dispersion Strengthening and Eutectic Phase Diagrams 324
Introduction 324
11- 1 Principles and Examples of Dispersion Strengthening 325
11- 2 Intermetallic Compounds 326
11- 3 Phase Diagrams Containing Three-Phase Reactions 328
11- 4 The Eutectic Phase Diagram 331
11- 5 Strength of Eutectic Alloys 341
11- 6 Eutectics and Materials Processing 347
11- 7 Nonequilibrium Freezing in the Eutectic System 349
SUMMHRV 350 - GLOSSHRV 350 - PROBLEMS 352
Chapter 12 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment 357
Introduction 357
12- 1 Nucleation and Growth in Solid-State Reactions 358
12- 2 Alloys Strengthened by Exceeding the Solubility Limit 362
12- 3 Age or Precipitation Hardening 364
12- 4 Applications of Age-Hardened Alloys 364
12- 5 Microstructural Evolution in Age or Precipitation Hardening 365
12- 6 Effects of Aging Temperature and Time 367
12- 7 Requirements for Age Hardening 369
12- 8 Use of Age-Hardenable Alloys at High Temperatures 369
12- 9 The Eutectoid Reaction 370
12- 10 Controlling the Eutectoid Reaction 375
12- 11 The Martensitic Reaction and Tempering 380
SUMMARY 384 - GLOSSARY 385 - PROBLEMS 387
Chapter 13 Heat Treatment of Steels and Cast Irons 391
Introduction 391
13- 1 Designations and Classification of Steels 392
13- 2 Simple Heat Treatments 396
13- 3 Isothermal Heat Treatments 398
13- 4 Quench and Temper Heat Treatments 401
13- 5 Effect of Alloying Elements 406
13- 6 Application of Hardenability 409
13- 7 Specialty Steels 412
13- 8
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