Due to the cross-sectional nature of our study, we cannot make any causal inference. Theoretically however, there are three possible interpretations for the inverse association between parameters of glucose metabolism and microstructural brain parenchymal homogeneity (brain integrity). The first theoretical explanation is that loss of brain integrity is a consequence of defects in glucose metabolism. T2D, characterized by hyperglycemia, insulin resistance and hyper-insulinemia, has been proposed to be involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (Ott et al., 1999; Luchsinger et al., 2004; de la Monte and Wands, 2005), hallmark of which are progressive loss of nerve fibers and cells. This may be due to direct damage to the brain from high circulating glucose levels. It may also be due to secondary effects, including peripheral insulin resistance. A second theoretical possibility is that defects in glucose metabolism are a consequence of deficits in brain integrity. Emerging data from animal studies that show that the brain plays a physiologic role in glucose regulation (Lin et al., 2004; Lu et al.,2012; Morton et al., 2013; Schwartz et al., 2013) may support this possibility. The third possibility is that of the brain and metabolic dysregulation both being consequences of another common determinant. An example of a common pathway that may affect brain function as well as insulin resistance is oxidative stress (Jayaraman and Pike, 2014).Several theoretical explanations exist for the observed differences in the associations between insulin action and microstructural brain parenchymal homogeneity with age and familial longevity. It is becoming clearer that the brain plays an important role in the regulation of peripheral glucose and insulin action [4]. Age related brain changes (reduced myelin and axons, and shrinkage of large neurons) are accompanied by reduction in brain volumes and function (Meier-Ruge et al., 1992). Brain control of glucose levels may also be affected, for which the body may compensate by higher peripheral insulin secretion. Our data show that higher insulin parameters are associated with decreased myelin and axonal integrity, and these are more pronounced in offspring and “younger” older adults in whom glucose-regulatory compensatory mechanisms are probably more intact. Another hypothetical possibility is that in the elderly and controls, diseases may be more prevalent that could reverse the association between insulin action and microstructural brain parenchymal homogeneity. For example, diseases that are associated with weight loss might improve insulin sensitivity but decrease microstructural brain parenchymal homogeneity. Systemic diseases such as chronic kidney disease, chronic respiratory disease, diabetes mellitus, and malignancies are more prevalent in the older adults, and may cause weight loss, which in theory would be associated with improved insulin sensitivity. However, since these are systemic illnesses, the disease itself may also decrease the integrity of the brain. For example, chronic kidney disease is associated not only with weight loss, but also with microvascular damage in the brain (O'Rourke and Safar, 2005).
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