shelves or tubules called cristae onto which oxidative enzymes are attached. The cristae provide a large surface area for chemical reactions to occur. In addition, the inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes that are necessary for extracting energy from nutrients. These enzymes operate in association with the oxidative enzymes on the cristae to cause oxidation of the nutrients, thereby forming carbon dioxide and water and at the same time releasing energy. The liberated energy is used to synthesize a “high-energy” substance called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is then transported out of the mitochondrion and diffuses throughout the cell to release its own energy wherever it is needed for performing cellular functions. The chemical details of ATP formation by the mitochondrion are provided in Chapter 68, but some of the basic functions of ATP in the cell are introduced later in this chapter. Mitochondria are self-replicative, which means that one mitochondrion can form a second one, a third one, and so on, whenever there is a need in the cell for increased amounts of ATP. Indeed, the mitochondria contain DNA similar to that found in the cell nucleus. In Chapter 3 we will see that DNA is the basic chemical of the nucleus that controls replication of the cell. The DNA of the mitochondrion plays a similar role, controlling replication of the mitochondrion. Cells that are faced with increased energy demands—which occurs, for example, in skeletal muscles subjected to chronic exercise training—may increase the density of mitochondria to supply the additional energy required. Cell Cytoskeleton—Filament and Tubular Structures The cell cytoskeleton is a network of fibrillar proteins organized into filaments or tubules. These originate as precursor protein molecules synthesized by ribosomes in the cytoplasm. The precursor molecules then polymerize to form filaments. As an example, large numbers of actin filaments frequently occur in the outer zone of the cytoplasm, called the ectoplasm, to form an elastic support for the cell membrane. Also, in muscle cells, actin and myosin filaments are organized into a special contractile machine that is the basis for muscle contraction, as is discussed in detail in Chapter 6. A special type of stiff filament composed of polymerized tubulin molecules is used in all cells to construct strong tubular structures, the microtubules. Figure 2-8 shows typical microtubules from the flagellum of a sperm. Another example of microtubules is the tubular skeletal structure in the center of each cilium that radiates upward from the cell cytoplasm to the tip of the cilium. This structure is discussed later in the chapter and is illustrated in Figure 2-18. Also, both the centrioles and the mitotic spindle of the mitosing cell are composed of stiff microtubules.
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