and ei ciency alone seems to have been the driv-ing principle that produced design that appears
to presage twentieth- century modernism. Shaker communities of ered some products for sale—most
notably their Ladder- back chairs, rockers, and straight chairs of simple wooden parts with woven tape seats—objects that achieved surprising pop-ularity in spite of their total inde pendence from the norms of Victorian taste. Although Shaker communities are now reduced to a handful of members, a number of Shaker villages, including
those at Hancock (12.12), Massachusetts, Sabath-day Lake, Maine, and Pleasant Valley, Kentucky, are preserved in a form suitable for modern study and admiration.
Early Skyscrapers
As cities grew larger, central districts developed that were devoted to business activities. Before telephone communication was available, prox-imity was an important consideration in making business communication fast and easy. The resulting need for oi ces crowded into a central
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