structure–activity relationship studies, minor differences in ligand structure can lead to either agonist or antag- onist activity. Full or partial agonist binding to AR is influenced by stereoisomeric conformation as well as by steric and electronic effects of the substituents. Molecular modeling of N-arylpropionamide AR ligands was used in conjunction with pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism to examine and opti- mize structural properties.Results from in vitro and in vivo animal studies suggest that the therapeutic promise of SARMs as treatment for muscle wasting, osteoporosis, hormonal male contracep- tion, BPH, or other conditions associated with aging or androgen deficiency—without unwanted side effects associ- ated with testosterone—may be soon realized (92). The AR specificity and lack of steroidal-related side effects clearly distinguish these drugs from their steroidal predecessors and open the door for expanded clinical use of androgens. As the molecular mechanisms of action of SARMs on tar- get tissues become more fully understood, the discovery of novel SARMs and expansion into broader therapeu- tic applications will be more feasible. Currently, research concerning SARMs is in preclinical discovery and the early phase of clinical development with the expectations that SARMs, with the beneficial pharmacologic activity of androgens without the unwanted side effects, will provide individual patients who have various androgen-dependent disorders with a significantly improved quality of life.
TREATMENT OF PROSTATIC DISEASES
Diseases of the prostate represent some of the greatest threats to men’s health. Incidence rates for BPH esca- late rapidly with age, from approximately 50% of men at age 50 years to approximately 90% at age 90 years in the United States. Drugs that inhibit the metabolism of testosterone to DHT (i.e., 5-reductase inhibitors) (93) or block urethral constriction (-adrenergic recep-
develop BPH within their lifetime. Although the cause of BPH is not well understood, it occurs mainly in older men, and it does not develop in men whose testes were removed before puberty. As men age, the concentra- tion of free testosterone in the blood decreases due to increases in SHBG, while the concentrations of estradiol increase due to aromatization in adipose tissue. Animal studies have suggested that BPH may result from the increased concentration of estradiol or DHT within the gland, which promotes cell growth (96). Men who do not produce DHT do not develop BPH (97).
The symptoms of BPH stem from obstruction of the urethra by an enlarged prostate and the gradual loss of bladder function, which results in incomplete emptying of the bladder. The symptoms of BPH vary, but the most common symptoms involve changes or problems with urination. The typical symptoms of BPH are obstructive (e.g., poor urine stream, dribbling, and large residual urine volume) and irritative (e.g., hesitancy, increased frequency of urination, and nocturia), which can signifi- cantly compromise the quality of life for men. The enlarg- ing prostate increases the adrenergic tone of the prostate in patients with BPH, which results in further tightening of the urethra. When partial obstruction is present, urinary retention also can be brought on by alcohol, cold tem- peratures, a long period of immobility, or the ingestion of over-the-counter cold or allergy medicines that contain a sympathomimetic decongestant drug or anticholinergics. Severe BPH can cause serious problems over time, including urinary retention and strain on the bladder, which can lead to urinary tract infections, bladder or kid-
ney damage, bladder stones, and incontinence.
Before and during adulthood, DHT plays a critical role in determining prostate size, and multiple lines of evidence suggest the importance of DHT in the develop- ment of BPH (98,99). For instance, BPH does not develop in males with certain type 2 5-reductase mutations or in males with very low levels of androgen because of pre-
tor antagonists) (94) are used as
1
front-line
treatment
pubertal castration or hypopituitarism-related hypogo-
for urinary obstruction associated with BPH. Surgery is also commonly performed as treatment for early-stage prostate cancer (i.e., prostatectomy) and transurethral resection of the prostate, making these some of the most common surgeries performed on men.
Prostate cancer is the most common noncutaneous cancer and remains the second leading cause of death from cancer in American men (95). Androgen recep- tor antagonists (i.e., antiandrogens) and gonadotropin- releasing hormone (LHRH) analogs are routinely used for medical management of patients with early-stage prostate cancer, whereas patients with advanced prostate cancer are treated with anticancer chemotherapy.
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
BPH is the noncancerous proliferation of the prostate gland. The major problem associated with BPH is lower urinary tract symptoms. Approximately 80% of men will
nadism. Moreover, clinical treatment of BPH either by
chemical or surgical castration or by type 2 5-reductase inhibitor (e.g., finasteride or dutasteride) induces apopto- sis of epithelial cells, which in turn significantly decreases the volume of the prostate (99). Recently, the role of age- dependent changes in the intraprostatic hormonal envi- ronment in the development of BPH was evaluated (93). Despite the aging-related decrease in testosterone and intraprostatic DHT production, an increased estradiol/ DHT ratio was observed in the aging human prostate, which can be relevant to the development of BPH. Furthermore, estradiol is capable of inducing precan- cerous lesions and prostate cancer in aging dogs (100). Therefore, TRT in older men raises concern regarding acceleration of BPH and/or prostate cancer.
Surgical procedures often are used to reduce a large prostate mass, but there are early pharmacologic treatments for BPH including -adrenergic blockers, 5-reductase inhibitors, and phytotherapy.
The -adrenergic antagonists treat the increased adrenergic tone of the sympathetic nervous system by relaxing the muscles at the neck of the bladder and in the prostate, thereby reducing the pressure on the ure- thra and increasing the flow of urine (94). They do not cure BPH but, rather, help to alleviate some of the symp- toms. Approximately 60% of men find that symptoms improve significantly within the first 2 to 3 weeks of treat- ment with an -antagonist. Alfuzosin, tamsulosin, and
uroselectivity for this receptor subtype. Thus, alfuzosin (an aminoquinazoline), tamsulosin (an N-substituted, catecholamine-related sulfonamide), and silodosin (a substituted indole carboxamide) were designed for the treatment of BPH (Fig. 40.13) (99). Doxazosin and tera- zosin, along with prazosin, originally were used as anti- hypertensives but also were found to be effective for the treatment of BPH based on their common mechanism of action. Comparisons of the affinities (Ki, nmol/L) of the
silodosin are used exclusively as first-line -adrenergic
1A-adrenoceptor antagonists (Table 40.3) did not show
antagonists for the treatment of BPH, while doxazosin
substantial differences for the quinazoline
1A-antago-
and terazosin have also been used to treat high blood
pressure. Prazosin, another -antagonist, is not indi-
nists (alfuzosin, doxazosin, and terazosin) but some uro-
selectivity for tamsulosin and silodosin (94,102,103). In
cated for the treatment of BPH. Tamsulosin, alfuzosin,
vivo studies showed that those
1A-adrenoceptor antago-
and silodosin are uroseletive -adrenergic antagonists
developed specifically to treat BPH.
The 5-reductase inhibitors work by suppressing the
nists without in vitro adrenoceptor subtype selectivity,
such as alfuzosin and doxazosin, showed uroselectivity (terazosin was not uroselective), whereas tamsulosin,
production of intraprostatic DHT, thereby reducing the
which exhibited in vitro selectivity for the
1A-adreno-
size of the prostate (93). Finasteride and dutasteride are
the most commonly used drugs for this purpose. Unlike
-antagonists, 5-reductase inhibitors are able to reverse BPH to some extent and so may delay the need for sur- gery. Several months of treatment may be needed before the benefit is noticed.
ceptor, did not show the expected in vivo uroselectivity
(104). Silodosin, the most recent addition to this class of drugs, showed both in vitro and in vivo uroselectivity. However, these differences between in vitro and in vivo studies suggest that these drugs modify urethral pres- sures in a manner that is not directly correlated with their
selectivity for the cloned
1A-adrenoceptor subtypes. It is
1-Adrenergic Antagonists
apparent that the existing
1A-adrenoceptor antagonists
MECHANISM OF ACTION -Adrenoceptors are widely distrib-
uted in the human body and play important physiologic
have different in vivo pharmacologic profiles that are not yet predictable from their receptor based on the cur-
roles (see Chapter 10). Of the three -adrenoceptor sub-
types (, , and ), -adrenoceptors, expressed
rent state of knowledge regarding the
classification (104).
1A-adrenoceptor
in prostate and urethral tissue, and -adrenoceptors,
expressed mainly in the detrusor muscle of the bladder and the sacral region of the spinal cord, have been shown mediate smooth muscle contraction and antagonists pro- vide relief from the symptoms of BPH. The vast majority of -adrenoceptors expressed in the prostate are of the
(70%) and subtypes (27%). -Adrenoceptor is known to be important in the regulati
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