In November 1922, when Einstein and

In November 1922, when Einstein and Elsa were visiting Japan as part of an extended tour of the Far East, they received the news that Einstein had been awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Although Einstein was most famous for his theory of relativity, the prize was officially awarded for his work on quantum theory. Throughout the first quarter of the century, Einstein made many important contributions to this field, the first of which was his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. From 1905 to 1923, he was one of the only scientists to take seriously the existence of light quanta, or photons. However, he was strongly opposed to the new version of quantum mechanics developed by Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schroedinger in 1925-26, and from 1926 onwards, Einstein led the opposition to quantum mechanics. He was thus both a major contributor to and a major critic of quantum theory.


Einstein's early contributions to quantum theory include his heuristic suggestion that light behaves as if it is composed of photons, and his exploration of the quantum structure of the mechanical energies of particles embedded in matter. In 1909, he introduced what was later called the wave-particle duality, the idea that the wave theory of light had to be supplemented by an equally valid yet contradictory quantum theory of light as discrete particles. Many of Einstein's quantum ideas were incorporated into a new model of the atom developed by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr in the first decades of the century. Bohr explained that electrons occupy only certain well-defined orbits around a dense nucleus of protons and neutrons. He showed that by absorbing a discrete quantum of energy, an electron can jump from one orbit to another. In 1916, Einstein found that he could explain Max Planck's blackbody spectrum in terms of the interaction of photons with the new Bohr atoms. Although his arguments for light quanta were well founded, the physics community did not take them seriously until 1923. In this year, the American physicist Arthur Compton measured the transfer of momentum from photons to electrons as they collide and scatter, an observation that made sense only in terms of the particle nature of light.

In spite of his contributions to the Bohr model of the atom, Einstein remained deeply troubled by the notion that atoms seemed to emit photons at random when their electrons change orbits. He considered this element of chance to be a major weakness of the model, but he hoped that it would soon be resolved when the quantum theory was fully developed. However, by 1926 the problem of chance remained, and Einstein became increasingly alienated from the developments in quantum theory; he insisted that "God does not play dice," and thus there is no room for fundamental randomness in physical theory.

The year 1926, was a critical turning point in quantum theory, because it witnessed the emergence of two new forms of quantum mechanics. The first, wave mechanics, was a mathematically accessible theory based on Louis de Broglie's idea that matter can behave as waves just as electromagnetic waves can behave as particles. This idea received its strongest support from Einstein, Planck, de Broglie, and the Austrian physicist Erwin Schroedinger. The opposing camp, led by the German physicists Bohr, Max Born, and Werner Heisenberg, as well as the American Paul Dirac, formulated the theory of matrix mechanics. Matrix mechanics was far more mathematically abstract and involved those elements of chance and uncertainty that Einstein found so philosophically troubling.

In 1928, Heisenberg, Bohr, and Born developed the "Copenhagen interpretation," which joined the matrix and wave mechanical formulations into one theory. The Copenhagen interpretation relies on Bohr's complementarity principle, the idea that nature encompasses fundamental dualities and observers must choose one side over another in making observations. The interpretation is also based on Heisenberg's uncertainty relations, which state that certain basic properties of an object, such as the position and momentum of a subatomic particle, cannot be measured simultaneously with total accuracy. Thus the Copenhagen interpretation explained that while quantum mechanics provides rules for calculating probabilities, it cannot provide us with exact measurements.

Following the formulation of this new interpretation, Born and Heisenberg proclaimed that the "quantum revolution" had come to an end: quanta were a mere means of calculating probablilities, but did not account for phenomena as they actually occur. However, Einstein could not accept a probabilistic theory as the final word. As he saw it, the very goal of physics was at stake: he yearned to produce a complete, causal, deterministic description of nature. In an ongoing debate with Bohr that started at the Solvay conferences in 1927 and 1930 and lasted until the end of his life, Einstein raised a series of objections to qua

Kết quả (Việt) 1:

Trong tháng 11 năm 1922, khi Einstein và Elsa đã đến thăm Nhật bản như một phần của một tour du lịch mở rộng của vùng Viễn Đông, họ nhận được những tin tức rằng Einstein đã được trao giải Nobel vật lý năm 1921. Mặc dù nổi tiếng nhất của thuyết tương đối Einstein, giải thưởng chính thức được trao cho công việc của mình trên lý thuyết lượng tử. Trong suốt quý đầu tiên của thế kỷ, Einstein đã thực hiện nhiều đóng góp quan trọng cho lĩnh vực này, đầu tiên là ông năm 1905 giấy về hiệu ứng quang điện. Từ năm 1905 tới năm 1923, ông là một trong những nhà khoa học chỉ để có nghiêm túc sự tồn tại của lượng tử ánh sáng, hoặc photon. Tuy nhiên, ông phản đối mạnh mẽ với phiên bản mới của cơ học lượng tử được phát triển bởi Werner Heisenberg và Erwin Schroedinger năm 1925-26, và từ năm 1926 trở đi, Einstein đã lãnh đạo phe đối lập cơ học lượng tử. Ông là như vậy cả một đóng góp lớn cho một nhà phê bình lớn của lý thuyết lượng tử.Những đóng góp ban đầu của Einstein lý thuyết lượng tử bao gồm các đề nghị của ông heuristic ánh sáng có thể cư xử như thể nó sáng tác của photon, và mình thăm dò cấu trúc lượng tử của các nguồn năng lượng cơ khí của các hạt được nhúng trong vấn đề. Năm 1909, ông đã giới thiệu những gì sau này được gọi là lưỡng tính sóng - hạt, ý tưởng rằng lý thuyết sóng ánh sáng có được bổ sung bởi một đều hợp lệ nhưng mâu thuẫn cơ học lượng tử của ánh sáng là các hạt rời rạc. Nhiều người trong số những ý tưởng lượng tử của Einstein đã được hợp nhất thành một mô hình mới của nguyên tử được phát triển bởi các nhà vật lý Đan Mạch Niels Bohr trong những thập niên đầu tiên của thế kỷ. Bohr giải thích rằng điện tử chiếm chỉ nhất định được xác định rõ quỹ đạo xung quanh một hạt nhân dày đặc của proton và neutron. Ông đã cho thấy rằng bằng cách hấp thụ một lượng tử rời rạc của năng lượng, một electron có thể nhảy từ một trong những quỹ đạo khác. Năm 1916, Einstein tìm thấy rằng ông có thể giải thích Max Planck của quang phổ trong điều khoản của tương tác photon với các nguyên tử Bohr mới. Mặc dù lập luận của mình cho lượng tử ánh sáng cũng được thành lập, cộng đồng vật lý đã không đưa họ nghiêm túc cho đến năm 1923. Trong năm nay, các nhà vật lý người Mỹ Arthur Compton đo chuyển Đà từ các photon để điện tử khi họ va chạm và phân tán, một quan sát có ý nghĩa chỉ về bản chất hạt của ánh sáng.In spite of his contributions to the Bohr model of the atom, Einstein remained deeply troubled by the notion that atoms seemed to emit photons at random when their electrons change orbits. He considered this element of chance to be a major weakness of the model, but he hoped that it would soon be resolved when the quantum theory was fully developed. However, by 1926 the problem of chance remained, and Einstein became increasingly alienated from the developments in quantum theory; he insisted that "God does not play dice," and thus there is no room for fundamental randomness in physical theory.The year 1926, was a critical turning point in quantum theory, because it witnessed the emergence of two new forms of quantum mechanics. The first, wave mechanics, was a mathematically accessible theory based on Louis de Broglie's idea that matter can behave as waves just as electromagnetic waves can behave as particles. This idea received its strongest support from Einstein, Planck, de Broglie, and the Austrian physicist Erwin Schroedinger. The opposing camp, led by the German physicists Bohr, Max Born, and Werner Heisenberg, as well as the American Paul Dirac, formulated the theory of matrix mechanics. Matrix mechanics was far more mathematically abstract and involved those elements of chance and uncertainty that Einstein found so philosophically troubling.In 1928, Heisenberg, Bohr, and Born developed the "Copenhagen interpretation," which joined the matrix and wave mechanical formulations into one theory. The Copenhagen interpretation relies on Bohr's complementarity principle, the idea that nature encompasses fundamental dualities and observers must choose one side over another in making observations. The interpretation is also based on Heisenberg's uncertainty relations, which state that certain basic properties of an object, such as the position and momentum of a subatomic particle, cannot be measured simultaneously with total accuracy. Thus the Copenhagen interpretation explained that while quantum mechanics provides rules for calculating probabilities, it cannot provide us with exact measurements.Following the formulation of this new interpretation, Born and Heisenberg proclaimed that the "quantum revolution" had come to an end: quanta were a mere means of calculating probablilities, but did not account for phenomena as they actually occur. However, Einstein could not accept a probabilistic theory as the final word. As he saw it, the very goal of physics was at stake: he yearned to produce a complete, causal, deterministic description of nature. In an ongoing debate with Bohr that started at the Solvay conferences in 1927 and 1930 and lasted until the end of his life, Einstein raised a series of objections to qua