Kiểu hình sự phân biệt và kiểu gen-kiểu hình Hiệp hội IN NTDTSự phân biệt của phenotypes khác nhau của thalassemia chủ yếu dựa vào thông số lâm sàng, mặc dù kiểu hình kiểu gen Hiệp hội thường được thiết lập trong cả hai hội chứng α và β-thalassemia.β-THALASSEMIA INTERMEDIA In patients with β-thalassemia intermedia, the primary modifier of phenotype is the broad diversity of mutations that affect the β-globin gene in the homozygous or compound heterozygous state (>200 disease-causing mutations, updated list available http://globin.cse.psu. edu) [23]. These range from mild promoter mutations that cause a slight reduction in β-globin chain production to the many different mutations that result in the β°-thalassemias; that is, a complete absence of β-globin chain synthesis. Deletions of the β-globin gene are uncommon. The diversity of mutations and the consequent variable degree of α/β-globin chain imbalance and ineffective erythropoiesis are the main determinants for milder anemia and phenotype in β-thalassemia intermedia than β-thalassemia major. Secondary modifiers are those that are involved directly in modifying the degree of α/β-globin chain imbalance including coinheritance of different molecular forms of α-thalassemia [24], increased expression of α-hemoglobin stabilizing protein [25-26], and effective synthesis of γ-chains in adult life. Several genes have been uncovered which could modify γ-chain production and ameliorate phenotype, some that are encoded in the β-globin gene cluster (δβ0-thalassemia or point mutations at A-γ or g-γ promoters), others that are on different chromosomes (BCl11A, KlF1, HBS1l-myB) [23]. Tertiary modifiers include polymorphisms that are not related to globin chain production but may have an ameliorating effect on specific complications of the disease like iron absorption, bilirubin metabolism, bone metabolism, cardiovascular disease, and susceptibility to infection CHAPTER 014[27-28]. β-thalassemia intermedia may also result from the increased production of α-globin chains by a triplicated or quadruplicated α-genotype associated with β-heterozygosity [29-34]. less commonly, only a single β-globin locus is affected, the other being completely normal, so in these instances, β-thalassemia intermedia is dominantly inherited [35-36]. Table 1-1 illustrates common genotypes leading to a β-thalassemia intermedia phenotype [4].Table 1-1: genotype-phenotype associations in β-thalassemia. Reproduced with permission from reference [4].HPFH, hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin.HEMOGLOBIN E/β-THALASSEMIA Hemoglobin E is caused by a g-to-A substitution in codon number 26 of the β-globin gene, which produces a structurally abnormal hemoglobin and an abnormally spliced nonfunctional mRNA. Hemoglobin E is synthesized at a reduced rate and behaves like a mild β+-thalassemia. Patients with hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia co-inherit a β-thalassemia allele from one parent, and the structural variant, hemoglobin E, from the other [24, 37]. Hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia is further classified into severe (hemoglobin level as low as 4-5 g/dl, transfusion-dependent, clinical symptoms similar to β-thalassemia major), moderate (hemoglobin levels between 6 and 7 g/dl, transfusion-independent, clinical symptoms similar to β-thalassemia intermedia), and mild (hemoglobin levels between 9 and 12 g/dl, transfusion-independent, usually do not CHAPTER 01
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develop clinically significant problems) clinical forms; with the latter two falling into the category of NTDT [38]. A disease scoring system that helps classify patients into mild, moderate, and severe has been proposed (Table 1-2) [39].
Table 1-2: mahidol score for hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia severity classification. Reproduced with permission from reference [39].
For each criterion, a score is given depending on the value. The total sum of all scores is then interpreted as follows: mild hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia (severity score <4); moderate hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia (severity score 4-7); and severe hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia (severity score >7).
Similar to patients with β-thalassemia intermedia, modifiers of disease severity in hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia include the type of β-thalassemia mutation, co-inheritance of α-thalassemia and determinants that increase fetal hemoglobin production (BCl11A and HBS1l-myB), as well as tertiary modifiers of complications like the inherited variability in the function of the gene for UDP-glucuronosyltransferase-1 underlying the more severe chronic hyperbilirubinemia and an increased occurrence of gallstones observed in some patients [15-16, 24, 40-45]. It should be noted that patients with hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia also show different phenotypic severity at particular stages of development. Advancing age has an independent and direct effect on the background level of erythropoietin production in response to anemia [46-48]. A notable environmental factor influencing phenotype in patients with hemoglobin E/β-thalassemia is infection with malaria, particularly Plasmodium vivax [49].
α-THALASSEMIA INTERMEDIA (HEMOGLOBIN H DISEASE) Unlike β-thalassemia, deficient synthesis of α-globin chains in α-thalassemia is typically caused by deletions within the α-globin gene cluster on chromosome 16. Approximately 128 different molecular defects are known to cause α-thalassemia [21, 50]. There are many different sized deletions of the α-globin genes. Southeast Asian deletion (-SEA) is the most common and involves both α-genes, but not embryonic globin genes. larger deletions such as (-THAI) affect embryonic genes and may be more severe [51-52]. The different phenotypes in α-thalassemia are primarily attributed to whether one (α+-thalassemia) or both (αo-thalassemia) α-globin genes are deleted in each of the two loci (Table 1-3) [4].
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