Introduction to a book about mapsTh

Introduction to a book about maps
This book is a celebration of the map in its myriad forms over time. I have attempted to penetrate beneath the sometimes glossy, sometimes plain surface to look at why they came into being, who their creators were and what their relationship was to the society in which they were created. All this effort may seem excessive for an object which for many people is just an ephemeral item of passing need, though there seems always to have been an equal number for whom maps have been an endless source of fascination on scientific, aesthetic, historical and cultural grounds.
Over the past twenty years most people working on the academic study of snaps have come to accept the definition formulated in 1981 by Harley and Woodward at the beginning of the first volume of their monumental and still incomplete History of Cartography that 'Maps are graphic representations that facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, process or events in the human world'. This is the definition I have borne in mind in this book. In 1987, though, it caused some consternation among those who took a more restrictive view of the map as a primarily utilitarian geographical paper object, whose quality was to be assessed primarily in terms of its geometrical accuracy.
This traditional view of the historical development of mapping was propagated primarily by geographers, some of whom had only a passing acquaintance with historical method, with occasional contributions by librarians and map dealers who were anxious to increase popular interest in their area, Historians of discovery also used old maps to illustrate their texts, sometimes doing research into their creation and publication histories. This practice, and the traditional view of geographers, led to a lasting confusion between the history of exploration and the history of cartography which has proved over-restrictive to both, and beneficial to neither.
Geographical researchers tended to view the evolution of mapping in terms of the gradual victory of objective 'truth' and precise scientific method over geographical ignorance. The achievements of national mapping agencies were lauded as the pinnacles of cartographic achievement. The creators of European mapping from before 1544 were condemned, by most academic geographers, as ignorant or at least befuddled, and many of its most appealing aspects dismissed as 'mere decoration'. Meanwhile mainstream historians assumed that maps were the province of academic geographers, in so far as they took any interest, it was in the form of modern historical mapping that clarified their interpretation of the past.
The detailed study of old maps was relegated to local historians and librarians. The typical fruits of their labors were long lists of maps and the different states in which they were to be found. Much of this work was fascinating in its own right and was essential for any further progress. Hut it was marked by diffidence and quite often a lack of intellectual rigor. It was as if the authors did not have the collective courage to say out loud what their emotions told them loud and clear: that scientific measurement was not the be all and end all of mapping.
It is only in recent years this has radically changed. This is partly due to the increasing awareness of the importance of the visual, as a consequence of the spread of television and the internet, and the ease with which images can be manipulated in a digital environment. But also, thanks to the growing popularity of interdisciplinary studies at university, academic historians of all typo began to find that maps sometimes; offered perspectives on their subjects that were not possible from other sources. It is accepted that for some purposes, such as navigation and administration, mathematical accuracy did and still does play a major role in cartography. Conversely, the very aspects that tended to be disregarded, such as the distortions and the decoration, become of enormous significance since they can give particularly precious insights into the mentalities of past ages.
For many enthusiasts, the fascination of maps ironically stems from the fact that they are pieces of fiction. With historical military maps, for example, the truth dawns that the map they are interested in does not accurately depict the shapes of the fields where battles occurred. Yet it has to be that way. Given the impossibility of representing the total reality, with all its complexity, on a flat surface, hard decisions have to be taken as to what features to select for accurate representation. For most of the time, this process of selection is almost instinctive. The mapmaker knows the purpose that he wants his map to serve, and beyond that he is unwittingly guided by the values and assumptions of the time in which he lives.
In order to meet that purpose, the information that is represented will be prioritized by the mapmaker - and not necessarily in accordance with actual geographical size. Even on modern national topographic mapping such features as motorways will be shown tear larger than they actually arc because they are important to drivers, and users will expect to see them without difficulty.

From the moment they leave the security of their accustomed environment, travelers are at risk. Hazards arise not just from strange diseases they encounter on their travels, but from other factors too: seemingly uninspiring home comforts such as a safe water supplies, sanitation and public hygiene controls, legal safety standards for motor vehicles and road maintenance, are easily taken for granted, but simply do not exist in many countries. Environmental factors such as arduous conditions, adverse climate and high altitude may constitute a danger; and so may travelers’ own behavior free from the restraints of the daily routine, and determined to have a good time with scant regard for the consequences. When illness or injury occurs abroad, travelers are again at a disadvantage — from inability to communicate with a doctor on account of language or cultural difficulties, or being unable to find a doctor owing to ignorance of the local medical system, There may be a complete absence of skilled medical care, or of medical facilities of a standard acceptable to travelers from technologically more sophisticated countries. When symptoms of an illness acquired abroad do not appear until after return home a final hazard becomes apparent: the symptoms may be unfamiliar, may pass unrecognized and the correct diagnosis may not be considered until it is too late.

Dear Anita,
Just a quick note to let you know that I've found out what you should do about getting a temporary job at the hospital. Write to the Personnel Officer: his name is Mr. I. Cooper. Tell him that you're looking for a temporary summer job and that you're wondering whether they need anyone. Mention that I suggested you write to him - I know him fairly well. Of course, he knows me as Dr Ferguson.
Tell him what you're doing now - you know, that you've been a student for about eighteen months - and that you'd really like to work in a hospital in your holiday because you've decided to become a hospital doctor when you get your degree. Since you haven't done that sort of work before, you'd better tell him that you really want to learn and that you'll take anything they offer you. It may mean being a general assistant on a ward - it's really hard work and there won't be much money in it, I'm afraid.
I think you ought to put in your school certificates and your latest exam results from university because he'll probably want to see them. I wouldn't send the originals, though - you don't want them to get lost. And tell him that you'll send him any other info about yourself that he might want. Finish the letter off by telling him where he can get in touch with you - you'll be at that address until mid-June, won't you?
Anyway, I must get back to work now.
Love,
James