*[: Significantly high/up regulated; [Y: No change/high but not at significant level; C: Combination; I: Individual.
infectious agents [82]. Probiotics either single or in combination are found to trigger the lysozyme level in teleosts. The enhancement of lysozyme level by probiotics like L. rhamnosus, Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Carnobacterium divergens in O. mykiss [56,63], L. lactis ssp. lactis, L. mesenteroides and L. sakei in brown trout (Salmo trutta) [44] is reported. Apart from serum lysozyme content, probiotics can also enhance the lysozyme level in skin mucosa of fish [75,76]. Taoka et al. [76] reported signifi- cantly high lysozyme level in skin mucosa by supplementing commercial probiotics through water in comparison to oral supplementation in O. niloticus.
On contrary, dietary supplementation of probiotics like L. sakei in S. trutta [44], L. sakei, L. lactis ssp. lactis, L. mesenteroides, and L. rhamnosus in O. mykiss [45,64], Aeromonas sobria in O. mykiss [48] as well as water supplementation of Bacillus coagulans, B. subtilis and Rhodopseudomonas palustris and Enterococcus faecium in O. niloticus [78,79] failed to elevate lysozyme level. Similarly, Peters et al. [67] failed to detect any specific change in serum and skin
mucosa lysozyme level by feeding A. sobria @108 cells/g feed
and B. thermosphacta @1010 cells/g feed in O. mykiss for a period of
14 days.
4.4. Peroxidase and anti-protease activity
The peroxidase is an important enzyme that utilizes oxidative radicals to produce hypochlorous acid to kill pathogens. During oxidative respiratory burst, it is mostly released by the azurophilic granules of neutrophils. Dietary supplement of probiotic like B. subtilis alone or in combination with L. delbrueckii ssp. lactis for 3 weeks lead to high serum protease activity but failed to enhance
the peroxidase activity of head kidney leucocytes of S. aurata [72]. Similarly, probiotics like E. faecium also elevated the serum perox- idase level in O. niloticus when supplemented through water
@1 107 CFU/ml in every 4 days for 40 days [78]. On contrary to
these findings, probiotics like L. delbrueckii, B. subtilis, Bacillus JB-1, A. sobria, Shewanella putrefaciens (Pdp11) and 51M6 did not affect the protease activity in fish like O. mykiss and S. aurata [48,49,71].
Similarly, anti-protease activities of serum and other body fluids are mainly due to a1 and a2-antiprotease, and a2-macroglobulin and also responsible for preventing proteolytic pathogens [83,84]. Though, these activities are normally high in fish and hardly modulated even after immunization or infection [84], certain pro- biotics can successfully elevate this activity in fish [48,59,73]. Sharifuzzaman and Austin [73] reported significantly high anti- protease activity in O. mykiss within 2 weeks of supplementation
of probiotic belong to Kocuria species (z108 cells/g feed).
4.5. Complement activity
In teleosts, complement system plays a key role in adaptive immune responses and involved in chemotaxis, opsonization, phagocytosis and degradation of pathogens. Complement, a component of the non-specific immune response, may have effector mechanisms like direct killing of microorganisms by lysis [85]. Probiotics can enhance natural complement activity of fish [65,72] and dietary as well as water treatment of many probiotics are often reported to stimulate the piscine complement compo- nents [64,78]. It is also worth noting that non-viable probiotics can stimulate complement components in fish. Choi and Yoon [49] recorded an increased complement activity in O. mykiss
from at 4th week of feeding the heat inactivated probiotics
(Pdp11 or 51M6).
4.6. Cytokines
Cytokines are protein mediators produced by immune cells and contribute to cell growth, differentiation and defense mechanisms of the host [86]. Perusal of available literatures indicate that a number of probiotics can effectively modulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, IL-
12, tumor necrosis factor a (TNF-a), and gamma interferon (IFN-g)
and anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and transforming growth factor b (TGF-b) in many animals [87e89]. Probiotics like Bifidobacterium longum, L. acidophilus, L. lactis, Lactobacillus para- cascei and Lactobacillus plantarum can up regulate the expression of various types of cytokines in various hosts [81,90]. Different strains of LAB can induce regulatory and pro-inflamatory cyto- kines while others probiotics can increase intestinal inflammatory responses [91].
Probiotics like L. rhamnosus, E. faecium and B. subtilis are found to up regulate the pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1b1 and TGF- b in the spleen and head kidney of O. mykiss [65]. Similarly, the expression of IL-1b, IL-8, TNF-a, and TGF-b in head kidney of O. mykiss by C. maltaromaticum and C. divergens indicates their possible involvement in anti-inflammatory responses as well [56]. On the other hand, Picchietti et al. [66] recorded down-regulation of Cyclooxygenase 2 (Cox-2) transcripts along with TGF-b and IL-
10 genes by L. delbrueckii supplemented through live carrier in Dicentrarchus labrax. COX-2 promotes intestinal wound healing but its chronic over expression can lead to inflammatory diseases [92]. Therefore, a balanced expression of COX-2 is essential for main- taining the intestinal homeostasis and modulation of the inflam- matory gene Cox-2 could be a key mechanism of anti-inflammatory action of certain probiotics [66].
5. Effect of probiotics on gut immunity
The gut is the organ where probiotics not only establish but also execute their functions including immunostimulaory activity. Therefore, the cross talk between probiotics, epithelial cells and gut immune system warrants high consideration. The immune system of the gut is referred to as gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) and the piscine gut immune system is quite different from mammals. Unlike mammals, fish lack Peyer's patches, secretory Ig A and antigen-transporting M cells in the gut [93]. However, many diffusely organized lymphoid cells, macrophages, granulocytes and mucus IgM found in the intestine of fish constitutes the immune function [94e99].
The interaction of non-commensal and probiotics with gut immune system of host is well documented in higher animals [100]. It is believed that probiotics and/or their components/ products interact with GALT to induce immune response. The whole bacteria can't be introduced through the epithelial cells and that only the antigenic particles or degraded products of the bacteria are able to make contact with immune cells [101]. The augmentation of the immune response by probiotic bacteria, a phenomenon similar to that of cholera toxin, may also occur in adherence with GALT and may therefore directly affect immune cells like leukocytes [102]. Fish possess strong antigen uptake capacity in the second gut segment and the uptake and transport of antigens followed by their processing by intraepithelial macro- phages is also reported in carp [103,104].
The effect of probiotics in stimulating the systemic immune responses are now well documented in several fish species but that of local gut immunity is lacking. Limited attempts due to lack of
suitable tools, are made to access the gut immune response following probiotics treatment. Few studies that were conducted in recent times indicate that probiotics can stimulate the piscine gut
immune system with marked increase in the number of Igþ cells
and acidophilic granulocytes (AGs) [66,72,105,106]. Probiotics supplementation at early developmental stages can be helpful in increasing specific AGs subpopulations [105]. The presence of T-cells in the GALT has been documented in many fish [97,107,108] and probiotics can lead to a significant increase in T-cells in fish. In a study, Picchietti et al. [66] recorded increased T lymphocytes in gut without any change in CD4 and CD8a transcript in sea bass (D. labrax) by L. delbrueckii ssp. delbrueckii supplemented through live carriers like artemia and rotifers.
Apart from this, enhancement of gut mucosal lysozyme by C. maltaromaticum and C. divergens [55] and phagocytic activity of mucosal leucocytes by LAB group of probiotics such as L. lactis ssp. lactis, L. mesenteroides and L. sakei [43] are also reported in fish like O. mykiss.
6. Probiotics and gnotobiotic approaches
The detailed mode of action of probiotics has not yet been established in any animals. It is often difficult to derive consensus on a particular pattern of stimulation. Hence gnotobiotic approch can be instrumental in understanding the basic mechanism of probiotic action [109]. Gnotobiotic studies in different animal models indicate the effect of different probiotics on the composi- tion and functioning of reconstituted gut microbiota, difference in their modes of action as well as involvement in both local and systemic immune responses of host [110e112]. Involvement of probiotics in up-regulating the gene expression of cryptdins and matrilysin, the first line of defense mechanism and in lipid absorption and metabolism, such as intestinal fatty acid-binding protein in higher vertebrates are already recorded [111,113e115].
The mono-bacterial association studies in gnotobiotic fish also indicate the microbial up-regulation of serum amyloid A1, C-reac- tive protein, complement component 3, angiogenin 4, glutathione peroxidase, myeloperoxidase as well as glycoprotein production [116e1
đang được dịch, vui lòng đợi..