Now let’s examine how a host on Subnet 1 would send a datagram to a host on Subnet 2. Specifically, suppose that host 111.111.111.111 wants to send an IP datagramtoahost222.222.222.222. Thesendinghostpassesthedatagramtoits adapter, as usual. But the sending host must also indicate to its adapter an appro- priate destination MAC address.What MAC address should the adapter use? One might be tempted to guess that the appropriate MAC address is that of the adapter forhost222.222.222.222,namely,49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A. Thisguess,however, would be wrong! If the sending adapter were to use that MAC address, then none oftheadaptersonSubnet1wouldbothertopasstheIP datagramuptoitsnet- work layer, since the frame’s destination address would not match the MAC addressofanyadapteronSubnet1. Thedatagramwouldjustdieandgotodata- gramheaven.Ifwelookcarefully atFigure5.19,wesee thatinorderforadatagramtogo from 111.111.111.111 to a host on Subnet 2, the datagram must first be sent to the routerinterface111.111.111.110,whichistheIP addressofthefirst-hoprouter onthepathtothefinaldestination. Thus,theappropriateMACaddressforthe frame is the address of the adapter for router interface 111.111.111.110, namely, E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B.HowdoesthesendinghostacquiretheMACaddressfor111.111.111.110?ByusingARP,ofcourse!OncethesendingadapterhasthisMAC address, it creates a frame (containing the datagram addressed to222.222.222.222)andsendstheframeintoSubnet1. TherouteradapteronSub- net 1 sees that the link-layer frame is addressed to it, and therefore passes the frametothenetworklayeroftherouter.Hooray—theIP datagramhassuccess- fullybeenmovedfromsourcehosttotherouter!Butwearenotfinished. Westill havetomovethedatagramfromtheroutertothedestination. Therouternowhas todeterminethecorrectinterfaceonwhichthedatagramistobeforwarded.As discussed in Chapter 4, this is done by consulting a forwarding table in the router. The forwarding table tells the router that the datagram is to be forwarded via routerinterface222.222.222.220. Thisinterfacethenpassesthedatagramtoits adapter, which encapsulates the datagram in a new frame and sends the frame intoSubnet2. Thistime,thedestinationMACaddressoftheframeisindeedthe MACaddressoftheultimatedestination. Andhowdoestherouterobtainthis destinationMACaddress?FromARP,ofcourse!ARPforEthernetisdefinedinRFC826.AniceintroductiontoARPisgivenin the TCP/IPtutorial,RFC1180. We’llexploreARPinmoredetailinthehomework problems.5.4.2 EthernetEthernet has pretty much taken over the wired LAN market. In the 1980s and the early 1990s, Ethernet faced many challenges from other LAN technologies, includ- ingtokenring,FDDI,and ATM.Someoftheseothertechnologiessucceededin capturingapartoftheLANmarketforafewyears.Butsinceitsinventioninthe VideoNoteSendingadatagram between subnets: link-layerand network-layer addressing mid-1970s, Ethernethascontinuedtoevolveandgrowandhasheldontoits dominant position. Today, Ethernet is by far the most prevalent wired LAN tech- nology, and it is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. One might say that Ethernet has been to local area networking what the Internet has been to global networking.There are many reasons for Ethernet’s success. First, Ethernet was the first widely deployed high-speed LAN. Because it was deployed early, network admin- istrators became intimately familiar with Ethernet—its wonders and its quirks— and were reluctant to switch over to other LAN technologies when they came on thescene.Second,tokenring,FDDI,andATMweremorecomplexandexpensive than Ethernet, which further discouraged network administrators from switching over. Third,themostcompellingreasontoswitchtoanotherLANtechnology (suchasFDDIorATM)wasusuallythehigherdatarateofthenewtechnology; however, Ethernet always fought back, producing versions that operated at equal data rates or higher. Switched Ethernet was also introduced in the early 1990s, which further increased its effective data rates. Finally, because Ethernet hasbeen so popular, Ethernet hardware (in particular, adapters and switches) has become a commodityandisremarkablycheap.TheoriginalEthernetLANwasinventedinthemid-1970sbyBobMetcalfeand David Boggs. The original Ethernet LAN used a coaxial busto interconnect the nodes. Bus topologies for Ethernet actually persisted throughout the 1980s and into the mid-1990s. Ethernet with a bus topology is a broadcast LAN—all transmitted frames travel to and are processed by all adapters connected to the bus.Recall that we covered Ethernet's CSMA/CD multiple access protocol with binary exponential backoff in Section 5.3.2.By the late 1990s, most companies and universities had replaced their LANs with Ethernet installations using a hub-based star topology. Insuch an installation the hosts (and routers) are directly connected to a hub with twisted-pair copper wire. A hubisaphysical-layerdevicethatactsonindividualbitsratherthan frames. Whenabit,representingazerooraone,arrivesfromoneinterface,the hub simply re-cre
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