to encrypt and decrypt the message. Symmetric- system is simple and fast, but its main drawback is that the two parties have to exchange the key in a secure way. Public-key encryption is typi- cally asymmetric, which can avoid the problem above. In asymmetric system, the public key can be distributed in a non-secure way, and the private key is never transmitted.Apublic key certificate (or identity certificate) is an electronic document which incorporates a digital signature to bind together a public key with an identity — information. The certificate can be used to verify that a public key belongs to an individual. A certificate authority (CA) is an entity which issues digital certificates for use by other parties. The signatures on a certificate are attestationsbythecertificatesignerthattheidentity information and the public key belong together. We will describe more about these cryptographic concept in the context of wireless networks later. The IEEE 802.11 is one of the conventional infrastructure-based wireless networks. Its speci- fication identified several services to provide a secure environment. The security services are currently provided largely by the Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) protocol to protect link-level data during wireless transmission between clients and access points [45]. The three basic security services defined by IEEE for the wireless local area networks (WLAN) environment are au- thentication, confidentiality, and integrity. It is worth mentioning that the previous IEEE 802.11 standard, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), has major security vulnerabilities due to the repetitiveuse of secret one-time keys [45].
Awirelessadhocnetworkisthemostcommon kind of wireless networks. It is a decentralized wireless network without any predetermined infrastructure. The network is called ad hoc net- works, because each node voluntarily forwards data to other nodes. The determination of which nodes forward data is made dynamically based on the network connectivity. In most cases, nodes in
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