consumer demand for oil importing nations decreases whereas theconsumer demand in oil exporting nations increases when the oilprice rises. This has implications on the macro-economy. In particular,this leads to a fall in world consumer demand for goods produced inoil importing nations; the resultant is an increase in the world supplyof savings. The increasing supply of savings causes real interest ratesto increase. Moreover, Hotelling (1931) argues (theoretically) thatchanges in interest rateswill alter oil prices through producer extractiondecisions if oil in the ground has value. He also claims that oil inthe ground can have value because it is scarce and this can differ fromthe value it has as a final output (good) or as an input to productionabove ground.Given that the interest rate is one of the most important determinantsof stock returns and return volatility (or market volatility), an increasein the interest rate raises the required rate of return, andnegatively affects the value of assets. This also encourages an investorto change the structure of his/her portfolio in favour of bonds and viceversa, which, to some extent, affects the volatility of the stock market(see, for example, Campbell, 1987; Engle and Rangel, 2005; Fama,1981; Fama and Schwert, 1977; Ferson, 1989; Shanken, 1990). On theother hand, a decline in the interest rate leads to an increase in thepresent value of future dividends. Additionally, according to Binderand Merges (2001), the volatility of the terminal value of the marketportfolio, which is in the numerator, is a function of aggregate output,the expected price level, and the price level uncertainty. The initialvalue of the market portfolio is in the denominator of the standard deviationof stock returns. As the initial value of the market index is thediscounted value of the future expected cash flow to equity, the samefactors that affect equity prices also affect the volatility of the stockmarketor volatility of returns (see, Marquering and Verbeek, 2004).Furthermore, Pierce and Enzler (1974) and Mork (1994) documentthat, according to the real balance effect, an increase in the oil pricewould lead to an increase in money demand. Thus, if monetary authoritiesintend to bring changes in money supply to meet the growingmoney demand, this will affect the stock market volatility throughchanges in portfolio substitution or inflationary expectations. Fama(1981) states that the inflation rate is positively associated with themoney supply growth rate. A negative change in the money supplymay cause a decrease in the discount rate and eventually will increasethe stock price. Therefore, if the central bank buys or sells bonds to adjustbanks reserves and themoney supply, the initial impact will be felton financial markets. This will lead to more market volatility or stockreturn volatility; for empirical evidence, see Cheng (1995) and Morelli(2002).In sum, we notice that the transmission mechanism is throughthe monetary channel. The wealth effect from oil alters the interestrate. Because oil exporting countries gain from oil production andhigher oil prices at the expense of oil importing countries, there isa shift in the interest rate, inflation rate, and money supply in boththe oil exporting and importing countries which affects economic activitiesand performance of the stock market. Hamilton (1983), forinstance, argues that seven of the eight postwar US recessions hadbeen preceded by a sharp increase in the price of crude oil. Hayatand Narayan (2011) argue that preceding the 2007–2008 globalfinancial crisis, the crude oil price hadmore than doubled.Moreover,several studies have shown that the oil prices have a statistically significanteffect on returns. Equally significantly, a recent study byNarayan and Sharma (2011) shows that the oil price has different effectson firm returns depending on the sector to which firms belongto in the case of firms listed on the NYSE. More specifically, theyshow that while the oil price generally has a negative effect on firmreturns for most sectors, for the energy and transport sectorsthe oil price has a positive effect on returns. Given this, and consistentwith the argument of Marquering and Verbeek (2004), thereis no reason to believe that the oil price will not affect firm return
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