Developments in information and communications technology (ICT), like the development of personal computers (PCs), networks, satellite, cable, Internet and digitalcommunications together with rapid advances in software, have all contributed torevolutionizing the way that business is conducted in many industries. Activities are nowbetter coordinated, research and development is speeded up, thus making businessesmore flexible and responsive. For example, many activities previously carried out bymiddle layers of managers, which often involved collating and analysing data fromoperational activities, and reporting to senior managers can now be more effectively carried out using ICT solutions. As a result, many companies such as British Airways havecut costs through reducing the numbers of people employed particularly at middle levelsof the organization in a process referred to as de-layering.
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