Barrick et al. (2002) have shown that the FFMpersonality traits are positively related to threeof these four higher-order goals, reporting thatconscientiousness was associated with achievement striving, extraversion was related to status striving, and agreeableness was linked to communion striving. These results have been replicated and extended in later studies (Halbesleben & Bowler, 2007; Hirschfeld, Lawson, &Mossholder, 2004; Parks & Guay, 2009). Althoughthe fourth higher-order goal, autonomy striving,has not previously been examined, autonomyand self-determination have been shown to berelated to openness to experience (Mount et al.,2005). In sum, an individual’s habitual patternsof thinking, feeling, and doing (i.e., personality)have been shown to lead to purposeful strivingsin the pursuit of these four broad implicit goals.The significance of the four higher-level goalsto our theory is that each leads to quite differentsets of work-related behaviors. First, individualsare highly motivated to achieve meaningfulcontact and to get along with others. FollowingBakan (1966) and Wiggins and Trapnell (1996),we term this communion striving. Second, individuals have a desire to exert power and influence over others within the organizational hierarchy. Following Adler (1939) and Hogan (1996),we refer to this as status striving. Communionstriving and status striving have been identifiedas broad goals associated with social interactions (Bakan, 1966). These goal strivings are sofundamental that they have been linked withevolutionary forces contributing to survival; successful groups have a well-defined leader (or leaders) and require that people cooperate andlive together harmoniously (Baumeister & Leary,1995; Hogan, 1983; Kenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller, 2010). Third, individuals aremotivated to gain control and understanding ofimportant aspects of the work environment andto pursue personal growth opportunities. Following de Charms (1968), Murray (1938), andSteers and Braunstein (1976), we refer to this asautonomy striving, although it also includesstriving for personal growth. Finally, individuals have a powerful need to demonstrate personal competence and a sense of accomplishment. Following Allport (1955), McClelland(1951), and White (1959), we refer to this asachievement striving. These latter two goalsfunction as inner states unique to each individual, which mediate his or her outward behavior.To be sure, researchers have discussed and conceptualized other motivational strivings, butconsidering the literature as a whole, we believe these four broad higher-order goals areboth parsimonious and universal in application.Task and social characteristics. Theoreticaland empirical research have long recognizedthat any job consists of task and social characteristics that vary in the degree to which theyare intrinsically motivating and so influence jobperformance (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Togain a more thorough understanding of how the work situation affects the employee’s motivation, it is essential to have a well-defined taxonomy of situations (Hackman & Lawler, 1971;Herzberg, 1954). Endler (1993) first suggested thatscholars should develop strategies for systematically investigating situations; subsequently,other scholars have attempted to define the dimensions of work situations based on motivational features of work (Campion & Thayer, 1985;Edwards, Scully, & Brtek, 2000; Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Recently, a consensus has emerged, building onthe seminal work of Hackman and colleagues(Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham,1976), that the vital motivational attributes of thework environment can be described through twomajor components: task characteristics and social context (Grant, 2007; Humphrey et al., 2007;Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006).Jobs that provide greater task identity (completing a whole piece of work from start to finish), skill variety (the opportunity to use differentskills on a variety of tasks), task significance(work outcomes having a substantial impact onothers), autonomy (discretion in decision making, work methods, and work scheduling), andfeedback (information regarding performance)are more motivating. Similarly, jobs with enriched social roles that provide opportunities tointeract with other employees or people outsidethe organization, to develop strong interpersonal relationships, and to exchange supportwith others (Grant, 2007; Grant & Parker, 2009;Humphrey et al., 2007) were identified in Hackman and Lawler’s (1971) original job characteristics article and have been found to significantly relate to job attitudes, work motivation,and job performance (Humphrey et al., 2007). Tomore comprehensively account for the motivating characteristics of work, we would add thedynamics associated with power, includingleading and influencing others to get desiredresponses from them while striving for status(Barrick et al., 2002; Hogan, 1983; Judge et al.,2002). Research consistently demonstrates thatleadership and social power over others havean important influence on individual motivation(Bono & Judge, 2003; Chen & Kanfer, 2006; Zaccaro, 2001)
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