Protocorm-like bodies: organogenesis vs. somatic embryogenesis Somatic embryogenesis is a defined developmental process that leads to establishment of embryos independent of fertilization event (von Arnold et al., 2002; Braybrook and Harada, 2008; Yang and Zhang, 2010). Similar to zygotic embryogenesis, specific molecular markers contributing to formation of basic body plan (morphogenesis) and accumulation of seed storage macromolecules (maturation) are commonly used to define somatic embryogenesis process. Despite the commonly accepted view in the orchid community that PLBs are of somatic embryonic nature, the comparative transcriptome and marker gene analyses presented here argue that regeneration of PLBs does not follow the embryogenesis program. Instead, the tight correlation between PLB development and PaSTM expression suggests that the PaSTM-mediated shoot organogenesis pathway may be important for PLB initiation. Expression of STM has been reported to be associated with organogenic shoot formation of Kalanchoe, Agave, and dodder (Garcês et al., 2007; Abraham-Juárez et al., 2010; Alakonya et al., 2012). Upregulation of STM gene is also associated with denovo assembly of shoot apical meristems from cultured explants (Gordon et al., 2007; Atta et al., 2009). Similarly, de novo leaf initiation of river weeds that lack typical shoot apical meristems is tightly linked to the expression of the STM gene (Katayama et al., 2010). The positive role of class-1 KNOX genes on meristem cell fate is further supported by the gain-of-function approach. In these cases, ectopic expression of the class-1 KNOX genes has been found to cause formation of new tissue-organization centers that are sufficient to induce ectopic shoots or organ-related structures (Sinha et al., 1993; Müller et al., 1995; Chuck et al., 1996; Williams-Carrier et al., 1997; Brand et al., 2002; Golz et al., 2002; Lenhard et al., 2002). Consistently, PaSTM is able to increase shoot generation ability by promoting expansion of shoot apical meristems and/or inducing organ-related structures with concurrent upregulation of shoot regeneration makers, RAP2.6L and GA2 oxidase2, when overexpressed in Arabidopsis. Based on these findings, we propose that PaSTM may be an important factor for PLB regeneration. During denovo organogenesis, initiation of cell division, establishment of auxin maxima, and specification of founder cells are commonly observed before organ development (Pernisova et al., 2009; Perianez-Rodriguez et al., 2014). In addition, coordinated interaction of phytohormones such as auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellins are known to regulate battery of genes required for the acquisition of competence and/or for organization of shoot apical meristem (Benková et al., 2003; Gordon et al., 2009; Pernisova et al., 2009; De Smet et al., 2010; Marhavy et al., 2011; Marhavy et al., 2014; Schuster et al., 2014). It is likely that similar signaling and gene regulatory activities are important in setting up PLB regeneration. In fact, expression of PaGA2OX1, a GA-catabolizing enzyme, was associated with PLB development. This is consistent with previous reports that GA inactivation is required for activity of the shoot apical meristem (Sakamoto et al., 2001; Jasinski et al., 2005; Bolduc and Hake, 2009). Additionally, several auxin-responsive genes were found to be upregulated in PLB tissues (Supplemental Dataset 1). It will be of future interest to understand how phytohormone signaling is integrated with the transcription network to coordinate the initiation and development of PLBs.
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