FIGURE 5.22Schematic diagram of the direct injection system in an SI engine.solve the problem of lower power output. However, such a system will have cost implications and the injector has to withstand high pressure and temperature in the cylinder. The use of the solenoid injector in direct injection creates considerable problems because the injector has to withstand the severity of the thermal environment and the force requirements are very high due to the strict controlled injection timing and the requirement for faster opening. Owing to working at high pressure, there can be a leakage problem as well. Further, such an injection system is in its preliminary stage of research and development (R&D). A few manufacturers have opted for it on a commercial scale. Large-scale commercial deployment may not be possible in the near future [9].4. Port injection system: In the port injection system, the fuel is injected into the inlet valve port of each cylinder through an injector placed close to the upstream side of the intake valve. The main advantage of port injection is increased power and torque through improved volumetric efficiency. Other advantages include uniform fuel distri- bution, rapid response to changes in throttle position and precise control of the A/F ratio during cold start and engine warm-up. The fuel injection can be timed or continuous injection [6].5.1.8 Continuous InjectionThere are several ways of actuating the injectors, such as hydraulic, pneu- matic and electromagnetic (solenoid operated). Solenoid-operated injectors are mainly being used. Hydraulic injectors have an advantage of low noise.The solenoid-operated injectors can be based on static flow or dynamic flow. In static flow, the armature is kept attracted by the coil and the injector delivers the flow. This is related to the maximum power output of a particu- lar engine. In dynamic flow, the injector is pulsed with a given pulse width, resulting in a flow, and it is important to determine the lowest load that can be applied to a particular engine. The accuracy of injectors is specified in terms of tolerances for static and dynamic flows to enhance the fast opening of the injector. An injector driver is a very sophisticated design allowing a very fast rise of current in the beginning to overcome the magnetic inertia. Subsequently, the current is reduced to minimise the heat build-up in the injector. In this way, it is possible to lower the pulse width, whereby the dynamic range decreases.5.1.9 Timed Manifold InjectionFuel is injected at regular intervals depending on the position of the piston. Injection takes place when the inlet valve opens and it ceases before the inlet valve closes. In a multi-cylinder engine, a separate injector is needed for each cylinder. Fuel is injected into each cylinder depending on the valve timing of that cylinder.The performance and emission characteristics of SI engines fuelled by an alternative fuel are explained in the later part of this chapter. The IC engine parameters are optimised for base fuel such as gasoline or diesel. The majority of vehicles in the world have gasoline-fuelled SI engines and diesel-fuelled CI engines. Dedicated vehicles for the use of alternative fuels such as E15, E85, M15, M85 and B20 are very less. In many countries, utilisa- tion of alternative fuels in IC engines is in the R&D stage.The vehicle’s design and operating parameters need to be optimised for better performance and emission characteristics of IC engines to utilise the alternative fuels more effectively. Flame speed also plays an important role.5.1.10 Exhaust Gas RecirculationThe most effective way of reducing NOx emissions is to hold the combustion chamber temperature down. Although practical, this is a method in which the thermal efficiency of the engine gets reduced. We know that to obtain maximum engine thermal efficiency, it should be operated at the highest possible temperature. Probably the simplest and most practical method of reducing maximum flame temperature is to dilute the air–fuel mixture with a non-reacting parasite gas. This gas absorbs energy during combustion without contributing any energy input. The net result is a lower flame tem- perature. Any non-reacting gas would work as a diluent. Gases with larger specific heat absorb the most energy per unit mass and would therefore be required in the least amount.Adding any non-reacting neutral gas to the inlet air–fuel mixture reduces the flame temperature and hence reduces NOx generation; exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is one gas that is readily available for engine use. Exhaust gas recycling is done by ducting some of the exhaust flow back into the intake system. The amount of flow can be high as 30% of the total intake. EGR combines with the exhaust residual left in the cylinder from the previous cycle to effectively reduce the maximum combustion tem- perature. The flow rate of EGR is controlled by the engine management computer-controlled system or digital manometer or rotameter.5.1.11.1 Oxides of NitrogenThe exhaust gases of an engine can have up to 2000 ppm of oxides of nitro- gen. Most of this will be nitrogen oxide (NO), with a small amount of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). There will be other traces of other nitrogen–oxygen combina- tions. These are all grouped together as NOx with x representing some suit- able number. NOx is very undesirable; regulations to reduce NOx emission continue to become more and more stringent year by year. The released NOx reacts in the atmosphere to form ozone and is one of the major causes of photochemical smog.NOx is formed mostly from nitrogen in the air. Nitrogen can also be found in fuel blends. Further, fuel may contain traces of NH3, NC and HCN, but these would contribute only to a minor degree. There are a number of pos- sible reactions that form NO. All the restrictions are probably occurring
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