Demographic Correlates of Self-Esteem
Age.Self-esteem is a developmental characteristic of individuals in that its composition, correlates, and level change over time. Harter’s approach to measuring self-esteem differently across childhood through adolescence (Harter, 1985, 1988; Harter and Pike, 1984) emphasizes that the domains composing self-esteem change with developmental periods. Research suggests developmental trends in the correlates of self-esteem: parental warmth may be the most significant input for younger children’s self-esteem, satisfaction with one’s appearance for adolescents, and satisfaction with one’s life for adults.
Large-scale studies conducted in North America have shown that an overall sense of self-esteem is relatively high in childhood, drops during adolescence, rises-gradually throughout adulthood, and then declines sharply in old age. There is cross-cultural evidence to support the decline of self-esteem in adolescence. Regarding decline in self-esteem among older adults, however, there is less of a consensus. The positive feelings associated with youth characteristic of Western cultures are less prevalent in societies like Japan, where old age has been more revered. Perhaps in contrast to the Western emphasis on youth, in societies where age brings respect and prestige, older adults may not experience a sharp decline in self-esteem.
Gender.Several studies, mostly carried out in the West, have indicated that gender may play an important role in the development of self-esteem. Across the life course gender differences are observed especially during adolescence when adolescent boys tend to have slightlyhigher self-esteem than do girls. Some researchers have found that there may be qualitative differences in women’s and men’s self-esteem in that, women’s self-esteem tends to be more closely related to significant others, whereas men’s self-esteem is more closely related to independent achievements. Additionally, gender-related sociocultural norms may also play a role. Adolescent girls who do not subscribe to traditional views of femininity tend to have higher selfesteem than girls who internalize traditional views of femininity, such as viewing their appearance in a more objectified way and subverting their selves to maintain relationships. Also implicated in the traditional views of femininity is self-effacement. It may be that the general trend of slightly lower self-esteem among adolescent girls relative to boys is in large part driven by some girls holding traditional views of what it means to be female.
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